Author: Awareness News

Friendship and Social Capital

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Human Features as Capital? A brief history 

    In 1776, Adam Smith wrote, in An inquiry into the nature and causes of the wealth of nations, that “The acquisition of talents during education, study, or apprenticeship, costs a real expense, which is capital in a person. Those talents are part of his fortune and likewise that of society”. This idea might seem quite intuitive for an inhabitant of the world in the 21st century, and even the greenest economist would associate these words with the foundation of Human Capital.  

    However, until the last century, this concept was actually quite unpopular. As Theodore Shultz points out in Investment in Human Capital (1961), investment in human is not devoid of moral and philosophical issues. His words, “It seems to reduce man once again to a mere material component, to something akin to property”, are especially evocative, considering the 13th Amendment to U.S. constitution, which abolished slavery, had entered into force not even one century before.  

    With the advent of statistics and nation-level measurements in the period of WW2, researchers started to observe that increases in national output could not be fully explained by increases in physical capital. It became possible to link the accumulation of skills, capabilities and knowledge humans with these unexplained variations in growth.  

    Today, the World Bank defines Human Capital as “The knowledge, skills, and health that people invest in and accumulate throughout their lives, enabling them to realize their potential as productive members of society.” 

    But what aspects of the multifaceted human being are included in this definition? Reading further, the WB specifies: “Investing in people through nutrition, health care, quality education, jobs and skills helps develop human capital, and this is key to ending extreme poverty and creating more inclusive societies.”  

    Human Relationships as Capital  

      After accepting the “capitalization” of individual’s traits, a more recent step has been recognizing that humans are social animals, and therefore, their relationships are a fortune too. The concept of Social Capital generally refers to social relationships between people that have productive outcomes. In a nutshell, Portes (1998) explains it as “whereas economic capital is in people’s bank accounts and human capital is inside their heads, social capital inheres in the structure of their relationships”.  

      Social capital is for sure a peculiar form of capital: it does not reside in any individual entity, but it’s embedded in society, it lies in relationships, it’s rooted in networks. However, just like any other type of capital, it requires investment and maintenance to yield returns. 

      If defining the determinants of human capital is not an obvious task, defining those of social capital is even more challenging. The Institute for Social Capital indicates a range of dimensions including trust, togetherness, volunteerism, generalized norms, everyday sociability, and neighborhood connections.

      In essence, applying this theory, helping an old lady cross the street, having a neighbor who looks after your child when you’re sick, or trusting the police—all of these actions contribute to a web of reciprocity that will eventually benefit either the individual or the broader society. 

      Just as human capital was initially controversial, social capital was—and perhaps still is—a contested concept. For sure, its reputation increased after the publication of Making Democracy Work: Civic Traditions in Modern Italy by the political scientist Robert Putnam. Focusing on Italian regional governments, he found how government performance was strictly linked to traditions of civic engagement.  

      Friendship as Social Capital 

        Within this broader framework, friendship emerges as a particularly powerful and personal expression of social capital — one that not only supports emotional well-being but also shapes long-term economic and social outcomes. 

        If friendship is part of human capital, then it somehow has impacts that extend beyond the individual to society at large. And it might be more powerful than one can think. In a 2022 study on networks and friendships, Raj Chetty’s and colleagues found that education, racial segregation, education, and family structure were not as important as cross-class connections in determining upward social-mobility. In fact, among all observed components of social capital, friendship across socioeconomic lines was the only one driving mobility. Social cohesion and civic engagement, by contrast, did not seem to play a role.  

        The relationship between friends also shapes the social tissue of communities. In Bowling Alone, Putnam describes how American society, one strong and civic engaged, is now degrading through the whimsical metaphor of bowling. The evocation of many lonely bowlers, with a nostalgic comparison to bowling leagues playing together, reflects the individualist derive of society.  From this point of view, friendship and social interactions are a sort of public good, and not just a private comfort. The weaking of these relationships has consequences that go beyond individual loneliness, but undermine the health of society. 

        Relationships and Policy Makers 

          Friendships, connections, networks, and trust — they all contribute to both individual well-being and a healthier, more cohesive society. Yet we rarely hear politicians or policymakers address these topics directly. In an era where society is becoming increasingly individualistic, the case for investing in social capital becomes even more urgent. Urban planning, for instance, can be intentionally designed to promote cross-class connections and neighborhood friendships. The creation of public and recreational spaces that facilitate meeting and incentive people to socialize, promotion of sports and community strengthening activities can be impactful policies for boosting social capital. Reinvesting in friendships and ways of making them happen it’s not just about enhancing well-being, it’s a necessary step to rebuild a strong social fabric, that can sometimes be as important as and educated or healthy community. 

          Sources:

          Chetty, R., (2022). Social capital I: measurement and associations with economic mobility https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-022-04996-4 

          Goldin, C. (2016). Human Capital. https://scholar.harvard.edu/files/goldin/files/goldin_human_capital.pdf

          Institute for Social Capital. https://www.socialcapitalresearch.com/literature/evolution/

          Putnam, R. D., Leonardi, R., & Nonetti, R. Y. (1993). Making Democracy Work: Civic Traditions in Modern Italy. Princeton University Press. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctt7s8r7 

          Putnam, R. D., “Bowling Alone: America’s Declining Social Capital” Journal of Democracy, January 1995, pp. 65-78. 

          Schultz, T. W. (1961). Investment in Human Capital. The American Economic Review, 51(1), 1–17. http://www.jstor.org/stable/1818907 

          World Bank: The Human Capital Project https://www.worldbank.org/en/publication/human-capital 

          Veronica Guerra

          Research Editor & Writer

          From Primal to Contemporary Societies: the interpretations of dreams 

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          Dreams have been interpreted in many ways throughout history. From spiritual messages in ancient cultures to symbols of the unconscious in modern psychology, each society has brought its own meaning to the world of dreams. As beliefs and knowledge evolved, so did the ways people understood what dreams reveal about life, the soul, and the mind. 

          Primal Societies 

          Early on, dreams were seen as messages from spirits or gods, with the soul leaving the body during sleep to experience them. During this period, Shamans (spiritual practitioners who are believed to have the ability to communicate with spirits and the otherworld) were highly valued for their ability to enter the dream world and bring back important insights, including healing and recovering lost souls and many tribes encouraged sharing dreams, especially powerful ones, for interpretation by elders or shamans. For example: The Lakota Sioux (native american people, the largest and most well-known band of the Sioux Nation renowned for being a strong and fierce tribe of warriors, they led much of the resistance against settlers encroaching on their land) believed visions had value only when shared with the community. 

          Early Civilizations (Mesopotamia and Egypt) 

          In this epoch, dreams were considered divine messages or oracles, influencing governance and religion. They were recorded in texts like the Epic of Gilgamesh and interpreted by priests or dream experts using three different methods: 

          Clear Message 

          These dreams were often considered divine communications, with a figure (usually a god, human, or sometimes an animal or object) delivering a clear, understandable message. Historical examples include the dreams of Nabonidus (king of Babylon) and Thutmose IV (Egyptian prince), where gods appeared in dreams to deliver specific commands (e.g., rebuilding a temple, clearing sand from the Sphinx). 

          Symbolic Dreams 

          These dreams were more cryptic and required interpretation. The Epic of Gilgamesh, an ancient Mesopotamian poem, provides examples where the hero Gilgamesh seeks interpretation from his mother. Symbolic dreams were often interpreted as foretelling future events, like the arrival of a significant person or event. 

          Incubation 

          It was a practice in which individuals slept in a temple to receive prophetic or healing dreams, often involving gods or divine figures. These rituals were a form of divine consultation and were especially common in Egypt and Mesopotamia. 

          Oriental Societies 

          China 

           Dream interpretation is a significant part of Chinese culture. Chuang Tzu (369-286 B.C.), a Taoist sage, presented the paradox of dreaming one is a butterfly and wondering if one is a butterfly dreaming of being a man or vice versa. Some Taoist temples in southern China offered people a place to sleep for receiving important dreams, and some even survived into the Great Cultural Revolution (1966-76). 

          India 

          The Vedas, India’s sacred texts, suggest that the soul leaves the body during sleep and creates its own experiences. Some believe dreams are illusions, while others, like Shankaracharya, (Indian Vedic scholar, philosopher and teacher) regarded them as meaningless. However, Hinduism and Buddhism often teach that both dreams and the waking world are illusory. Dreams were also viewed as omens or reflections of illness or death. Yogis encouraged using dreams to improve moral and spiritual life. 

          Hebrew and Jewish sources 

          In the Hebrew Bible, dreams were seen as divine messages, often interpreted by figures like Joseph and Daniel. Joseph’s symbolic dreams about his family were later realized. Biblical prophets had visions that seemed dreamlike, such as Zechariah and Ezekiel, but the distinction between dreams and visions was often unclear. Later Jewish tradition had rabbis and philosophers specializing in dream interpretation. Bad dreams were countered with rituals like fasting or prayer. Dreams were often seen as prophetic or a sign of divine favor. 

          Sigmund Freud and The Interpretation of Dreams 

          Freud proposed that dreams are not just random or meaningless occurrences during sleep, but that they are deeply connected to our unconscious mind. Freud believed that dreams offer a window into the hidden parts of our psyche, specifically repressed desires, thoughts, and unresolved conflicts. 

          Freud’s theory of the unconscious mind, central to his psychoanalytic approach, suggested that much of our mental life operates outside of conscious awareness. He argued that while we may not be consciously aware of certain feelings, fears, or desires, they still affect our thoughts, behaviors, and, importantly, our dreams. 

          Freudian Theory of Dream Analysis 

          For Freud, dreams were a “royal road” to understanding the unconscious mind. In other words, by analyzing dreams, a person can access a deeper understanding of their hidden psychological conflicts and motivations. He believed that dreams act as a kind of “censorship” in the mind, allowing repressed thoughts and desires to emerge in a disguised or symbolic form. 

          Dreams were not meant to be taken at face value. Instead, they required careful interpretation to uncover their underlying meaning. Therefore, various methods were developed for analyzing dreams, including the use of free association (allowing the dreamer to speak freely about any thoughts that come to mind) and exploring common symbols in dreams. 

          Modern dream therapy and analysis still rely on many of Freud’s concepts, although contemporary psychologists also incorporate cognitive and biological approaches to understanding dreams. Freud’s ideas helped pave the way for later theorists like Carl Jung, who developed his own theories about the symbolic meaning of dreams and the collective unconscious. 

          Carl Jung 

          Carl Jung’s theory of dream interpretation diverges from Freud’s by emphasizing not just personal unconscious material but also the concept of the collective unconscious—a universal layer of the unconscious shared by all humans. This collective unconscious holds archetypes, which are timeless, universal symbols and themes present in all cultures. Dreams, according to Jung, serve as a connection to this deeper layer of the psyche, offering insight into both personal and universal experiences. 

          Jung believed that dreams often serve a compensatory function. They aim to balance what’s lacking or repressed in our waking lives. For example, if someone is overly focused on rational thought, their dreams might present emotions or irrational elements to restore balance. This compensatory nature allows dreams to provide a mirror for the psyche, offering what’s needed for emotional and psychological growth. 

          In Jung’s view, dreams are filled with archetypes—symbols that represent fundamental human experiences and qualities. Common archetypes include the Shadow, which represents the hidden, often repressed aspects of the self, and the Anima/Animus, the inner feminine and masculine aspects within all individuals. These archetypes frequently appear in dreams, guiding the dreamer toward greater self-awareness and integration. 

          For Jung, the ultimate goal of life was individuation, a process of becoming the person one is inherently meant to be by integrating unconscious material into conscious awareness. Dreams play a crucial role in this process, revealing hidden desires, unresolved conflicts, and qualities that need to be acknowledged and integrated. Through dreams, the unconscious mind communicates essential messages to the conscious self, aiding in personal transformation. 

          Jung also highlighted that dream symbols could carry both personal and universal meanings. While some symbols in dreams reflect the dreamer’s personal experiences or feelings, others may connect to archetypes and universal themes shared across humanity. For Jung, understanding these symbols required a personalized, introspective approach to dream interpretation, with the dreamers themselves serving as the best interpreter of their own dream images. 

          To further engage with these symbols, Jung developed the technique of active imagination, where individuals consciously interact with the images from their dreams through creative means like drawing or writing. This helps integrate the unconscious material and deepens the understanding of the dream’s meaning. 

          Conclusion 

          In essence, the interpretation of dreams has evolved from being seen as messages from spirits and gods in primal societies to symbolic or prophetic visions in early civilizations like Mesopotamia and Egypt. In Oriental cultures, dreams were linked to the soul’s journey or illusions. With Freud and Jung, dream analysis shifted to understanding the unconscious mind and universal archetypes. Today, while contemporary approaches blend Freud’s and Jung’s theories with modern psychology, dreams continue to offer valuable insights into the self and the human psyche. 

          Sources: Dream Interpretation in Ancient Civilizations, The collected works of C. G. Jung, Freud Museum London…

          Teresa Catita

          The Impact of Donald Trump’s Tariffs on Markets and International Trade 

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          Tariffs have always been a contentious tool in global economic policy, and former President Donald Trump’s administration relied heavily on them to reshape America’s trade relationships. Trump’s approach to tariffs was characterized by the belief that they would protect American industries, reduce the trade deficit, and pressure foreign partners into negotiating more favorable deals for the United States. However, the actual effects of these tariffs have been complex and far-reaching, influencing everything from global supply chains to consumer prices. This article explores the potential and actual impacts of Trump’s tariffs on markets and international trade, offering examples, economic analysis, and perspectives from multiple sources. 

          What Are Tariffs and Why Did Donald Trump Use Them? 

          Tariffs are taxes imposed on imported goods. By making foreign goods more expensive, tariffs are intended to encourage consumers to buy domestic alternatives. Trump saw tariffs as a tool to reduce America’s trade deficit, particularly with China, and to protect domestic industries like steel, aluminum, and technology manufacturing. 

          Key Examples of Trump’s Tariffs: 

          • In 2018, Trump imposed a 25% tariff on steel imports and a 10% tariff on aluminum. 
          • In the same year, the administration slapped tariffs on $250 billion worth of Chinese goods, leading China to retaliate with tariffs on American products like soybeans, cars, and airplanes. 
          • In 2020, Trump threatened additional tariffs on European Union exports such as wine, cheese, and aircraft parts in retaliation for EU subsidies to Airbus. 

          How Tariffs Affect Domestic Markets 

          1. Higher Costs for Consumers 

          While tariffs target foreign producers, the actual cost burden often falls on domestic consumers. Importers pass higher costs onto consumers, making everything from cars to electronics more expensive. A study by the Federal Reserve Bank of New York estimated that by the end of 2019, Trump’s tariffs cost the average American household about $831 per year due to higher prices.  

          Example: When tariffs were imposed on washing machines in 2018, prices jumped nearly 12% within months, according to research published by economists at the University of Chicago and the Federal Reserve.  

          2. Disruption of Supply Chains 

          Many U.S. industries depend on imported components and raw materials. Tariffs on Chinese technology parts, for instance, disrupted the electronics and automotive sectors, which rely heavily on Chinese factories for affordable parts. This forced companies to either raise prices or absorb losses, weakening profit margins and investment. In the long run, some firms moved production out of China, but this led to higher transition costs and inefficiencies.  

          Impact on International Trade 

          1. Retaliatory Tariffs and Trade Wars 

          When the U.S. imposed tariffs, trading partners retaliated with their own tariffs. China targeted American agricultural exports, including soybeans, corn, and pork, hurting U.S. farmers who relied on the Chinese market. By mid-2019, U.S. agricultural exports to China had fallen by 53% compared to 2017. 

          Example: The American soybean industry suffered particularly harsh consequences. Before tariffs, China imported about $12 billion worth of U.S. soybeans annually. By 2019, that number dropped to under $3 billion. The U.S. government ended up subsidizing farmers to offset their losses, costing taxpayers billions. (Source: Bloomberg, 2019) 

          2. Erosion of Trade Alliances 

          Trump’s unilateral use of tariffs alienated key allies, including the European Union, Canada, and Mexico. When Trump imposed steel and aluminum tariffs, both Canada and the EU retaliated with tariffs on iconic American products, from Harley-Davidson motorcycles to bourbon whiskey. This strained long-standing trade relationships, particularly within the World Trade Organization (WTO) framework, which is built on predictable, rules-based trade.  

          Effects on Financial Markets 

          1. Market Volatility 

          Trump’s tariff announcements often led to immediate stock market swings. When tariffs on China were announced in March 2018, the Dow Jones Industrial Average plunged 724 points in a single day, reflecting investor fears of a full-blown trade war disrupting global economic growth.  

          2. Sectoral Winners and Losers 

          Some sectors benefited from protectionism, particularly domestic steel producers. However, industries reliant on steel (like automotive and construction) faced rising costs, eroding their competitiveness. Agricultural stocks, particularly in soybeans and pork, plummeted due to lost export markets.  

          Long-Term Economic Impacts 

          1. Reshoring vs. Offshoring Diversification 

          One goal of the tariffs was to bring manufacturing back to the U.S., a process called reshoring. Some companies did shift production, but many opted to diversify away from China to other low-cost countries like Vietnam, Mexico, and Thailand instead. This resulted in a fragmentation of global supply chains, increasing overall uncertainty.  

          2. Reduced Global Trade Growth 

          The uncertainty surrounding U.S. trade policy under Trump contributed to slower global trade growth. According to the World Bank, global trade growth fell from 5.4% in 2017 to just 1.1% in 2019, with tariffs playing a significant role.  

          Case Study: The U.S.-China Trade War 

          The most high-profile example of Trump’s tariff policy was the U.S.-China Trade War, which began in 2018. It involved escalating tariffs on hundreds of billions of dollars in goods on both sides. The conflict led to: 

          • Higher costs for American businesses and consumers. 
          • Reduced Chinese investment in the U.S.. 
          • A reshaping of Asian supply chains, with companies shifting production to Southeast Asia. 

          Ironically, despite Trump’s goals, the U.S. trade deficit with China actually increased in some sectors, as American companies stockpiled Chinese goods before tariffs took full effect.  

          Trump’s tariffs were a bold attempt to reset global trade dynamics, but the unintended consequences were significant. While they did pressure China into signing Phase One of a trade deal in 2020, they also: 

          • Raised prices for American consumers 
          • Hurt American exporters through retaliation 
          • Increased market volatility 
          • Weakened global trade growth 
          • Undermined trust in the international trade system 

          As the world moves with the Trump era, policymakers face the challenge of rebuilding stable trade relationships while addressing the legitimate grievances about unfair trade practices, especially concerning China’s industrial subsidies and intellectual property violations. Whether tariffs were the right tool for this job remains hotly debated, but their lasting impact on markets and international trade is undeniable. 

          Sources

          BBC, 2018; Peterson Institute for International Economics, 2020; Federal Reserve Bank of New York, 2019; Flaaen et al., 2019; Harvard Business Review, 2020; Congressional Research Service, 2020; CNBC, 2018; Reuters, 2018; Brookings Institution, 2020; Bloomberg, 2019; World Bank, 2020; Peterson Institute for International Economics, 2020.

          Afonso Freitas

          Research Editor & Writer

          Artificial Intelligence and Ethics: A Necessary Debate 

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          Time to read: 6 minutes

          Artificial Intelligence (AI) is no longer a futuristic concept but an integral part of modern society. It shapes decisions in finance, healthcare, law enforcement, and social media, influencing how people interact with technology and each other. The rapid integration of AI, however, brings with it a host of ethical concerns. Questions about fairness, accountability, and transparency challenge the assumption that technological progress is inherently beneficial. AI does not exist in a vacuum—it reflects the values and biases of those who create and deploy it. While ethical AI has become a widely discussed concept, turning principles into action remains a significant challenge. 

          Between Innovation and Responsibility 

          The potential benefits of AI are vast. Automated systems can improve efficiency, analyze massive datasets, and assist in complex decision-making processes. In industries such as healthcare, AI-driven models can detect diseases early, optimize treatment plans, and personalize medical recommendations. In business, predictive analytics can enhance supply chain management and customer experiences. Despite these promising applications, the ethical risks of AI cannot be ignored. 

          A key issue lies in the tension between innovation and responsibility. Companies and developers push for solutions, often prioritizing speed and market dominance over careful ethical consideration. AI ethics frameworks have been introduced to address this, but they frequently lack enforceability, leaving ethical concerns in the hands of the very entities that stand to profit from AI’s widespread adoption. 

          Challenges of Ethical Implementation 

          Ethical AI is easier to discuss than to implement. One of the greatest barriers is the lack of transparency of AI systems. Many machine learning models operate as “black boxes,” meaning their decision-making processes are difficult to interpret, even by their creators. This lack of transparency complicates accountability, making it unclear who should be held responsible when AI systems make biased or harmful decisions. 

          Another persistent challenge is bias in AI models. AI systems are trained on historical data, which often contains existing biases related to race, gender, and socioeconomic status. Rather than eliminating human prejudice, AI has the potential to reinforce and amplify systemic inequalities. Addressing these biases requires a combination of diverse training datasets, algorithmic audits, and ongoing oversight—none of which are currently standard practices across industries. 

          Additionally, economic incentives often clash with ethical considerations. The AI industry is dominated by tech giants that compete for market share, patents, and financial gains. Ethical concerns, such as privacy and fairness, are often secondary to profit-driven objectives. Without clear regulatory frameworks, companies can claim adherence to ethical principles while continuing practices that favor commercial success over social responsibility. 

          Bridging the Gap Between Theory and Practice 

          For AI ethics to move beyond discussion and into action, structural changes are necessary. Regulatory enforcement is one crucial step. Governments and international organizations must establish clear legal guidelines that define ethical AI development and deployment. Without binding regulations, AI ethics remains largely voluntary, dependent on corporate goodwill rather than enforceable standards. 

          Another important approach is enhancing AI explainability. Researchers and developers need to prioritize the creation of AI systems that are interpretable and understandable. This includes designing models with built-in transparency measures, providing clear documentation on decision-making processes, and ensuring that AI-driven recommendations can be challenged when necessary. 

          Additionally, inclusive AI development is crucial. Many AI development teams lack diversity not only in terms of gender and ethnicity, but also regarding socioeconomic background, cultural perspective, and disciplinary expertise, which limits their ability to recognize and mitigate biases in their models. A broader range of perspectives—spanning gender, ethnicity, socioeconomic backgrounds, and disciplines—must be included in AI research and implementation. Ethical AI requires collaboration between technologists, ethicists, policymakers, and affected communities to ensure that AI serves a wider spectrum of societal needs. 

          Case Study: IBM’s Ethical AI Approach 

          IBM (International Business Machines Corporation) has positioned itself as a leader in ethical AI by actively addressing issues of fairness, transparency, and accountability. Unlike many companies that focus solely on AI innovation, IBM has taken significant steps to integrate ethics into AI development through its AI Ethics Board, which oversees responsible AI deployment. 

          A key contribution to ethical AI is its focus on explainability. The company has developed the AI Fairness 360 toolkit, an open-source library designed to help developers detect and mitigate biases in machine learning models. By making these tools publicly available, greater transparency and accountability across the AI industry is encouraged. 

          The company has also taken a strong stance on regulatory engagement, advocating for clear legal frameworks to govern AI systems. Unlike some competitors that resist regulation, the company supports AI governance standards that ensure responsible development and deployment. 

          A notable example of the firm’s commitment to ethical AI is its decision to exit the facial recognition market in 2020. Concerns over racial bias and mass surveillance led IBM to discontinue its facial recognition services, citing the technology’s potential for misuse in law enforcement and violations of civil rights. This decision demonstrated that companies could prioritize ethics over profitability, setting a precedent for responsible AI business practices. 

          IBM’s approach to ethical AI implementation offers several key lessons. The company has demonstrated the importance of proactive governance by establishing an internal AI Ethics Board, ensuring that ethical considerations are embedded throughout the AI development process. To enhance transparency and mitigate bias, it has developed open-source tools such as AI Fairness 360, which help detect and reduce discriminatory patterns in machine learning models. Additionally, the corporation has been a strong advocate for regulatory frameworks, collaborating with policymakers to create enforceable standards that promote responsible AI governance. While the initiatives are not without challenges, they provide a blueprint for other organizations seeking to balance AI innovation with ethical responsibility. 

          A Call for Collective Responsibility 

          The ethical challenges posed by AI are not solely the responsibility of developers or policymakers—society as a whole must engage in shaping the future of AI. Consumers should be informed about how AI affects their lives, researchers must prioritize ethical considerations in innovation, and governments must create legal structures that uphold fairness, transparency, and accountability. 

          The debate around AI ethics is not simply about mitigating harm; it is about ensuring that technological progress aligns with human values. AI should not be left to develop unchecked under the assumption that efficiency outweighs ethical concerns. A proactive approach—one that prioritizes responsible AI practices over damage control—will be essential in defining how AI serves humanity in the years to come. 

          Sources

          • Arbelaez Ossa, L., Lorenzini, G., Milford, S. R., Shaw, D., Elger, B. S., & Rost, M. (2024). Integrating ethics in AI development: A qualitative study. BMC Medical Ethics, 25(10). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12910-023-01000-0 
          • IBM. (2020). IBM CEO’s letter to Congress on facial recognition and responsible AI policy. IBM Newsroom. https://newsroom.ibm.com/2020-06-08-IBM-CEO-Arvind-Krishna-Issues-Letter-to-Congress-on-Racial-Justice-Reforms

          Mara Blanz

          Research Editor & Writer

          Oscars 2025: A Review

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          More than a week has passed and our Arts and Culture members had time to digest this Oscars season… Here are their thoughts on the results for Best Picture, Best Actor and Best Actress!

          Ana Cardoso– A&C Member and Writer

          For best picture and actress, my bet was on Fernanda Torres and Ainda Estou Aqui. The film delivers a deeply moving narrative about resilience and identity, following a young woman’s journey of self-discovery after an unexpected loss. Its emotional depth and powerful performances made it my favorite. However, Mikey Madison and Anora took home the win—an unexpected but understandable choice. The film, which tells the captivating  story of a woman navigating love and survival in a world that constantly underestimates her, captivated audiences with its authenticity and storytelling. While Anora’s victory came as a surprise, its impact on indie movies is undeniable. Finally, best actor was none other than Adrien Brody. Performance after performance, Adrien has consistently proven his brilliance as an actor.

          His ability to fully immerse himself in complex and emotionally charged characters is remarkable, making us believe in every emotion as if it were his own. In Brutalist, Adrien elevates his performance to the level of the one that secured him his first Oscar. No surprise here—this win was well-deserved.

          Anora (2024) won big at the 2025 Oscars, including Best Actress and Best Picture. (Image credit: Getty Images / Jeff Kravitz)
          ‘Anora’ Poster, 2024
          Sean Baker, diretor de ‘Anora’ — Foto: Mike Coppola / GETTY IMAGES NORTH AMERICA / Getty Images via AFP
          Sean Baker and Mikey Madison pose at the Los Angeles premiere of “Anora.” (AP Photo/ Chris Pizzello)
          Top L to R: Vache Tovmasyan, Karren Karagulian; bottom L to R: Yura Borisov, Mikey Madison, Mark EydelshteynRed Gaskell

          Marco Pagliacci– A&C Member and Writer

          For best picture, Anora is definitely an unconventional and unexpected choice. The film has a good pace and keeps the viewer engaged, the film breaks traditional patterns, but I struggled to connect with the protagonists and fully understand the reasons behind their actions in a love story without love. However, the ending redeems it, offering a reflection on the hidden fragilities beneath the surface. I wasn’t particularly struck by Mikey Madison’s performance, which felt primarily physical rather than deeply expressive. While undeniably intense, it lacked the emotional depth needed to make the character truly compelling. It’s not even comparable to Emma Stone’s performance last year, which had layers and complexity.

          For best actor, it was a well-deserved and anticipated victory for Adrien Brody, who captivated with an extraordinary and nuanced performance, as said in his final speech that can and should teach us something. In the final stretch, it seemed that Timothée Chalamet, with his portrayal of Bob Dylan, could threaten Brody’s win. However, Brody’s deeper and more personal interpretation of the drama ultimately triumphed, making him the rightful winner.

          Marta Nascimento– Head of Arts & Culture

          Best Picture’s winner was unexpected! But I loved the love that Anora got! It told such a striking story with layered characters (especially Anora) all brought together by Sean Baker’s beautiful cinematography. Mikey Madison also deserved to win, I think her part in Anora showed great range for her as an actor, especially considering her more laid back personality in real life. I was rooting for her and obviously for Fernanda Torres who I thought was outstanding in I’m Still Here. For best actor,  I confess I was rooting for Colman Domingo or Timothee Chalamet but, nevertheless, Adrien Brody delivered, as always, an outstanding performance in The Brutalist (was it worth such a long speech though?).

          ‘The Brutalist’, A24 (2025)
          Adrien Brody plays immigrant architect László Tóth in the film, “The Brutalist.”
          (A24)
          Lionel Hahn/Getty Images (2025)
          Adrien Brody accepting his award Photograph: Rob Latour/REX/Shutterstock

          Mafalda Carvalho– A&C Member and Writer

          Regarding the best actress and best pictures awards, although my Portuguese-speaker pride would have liked to see I’m Still Here and Fernanda Torres much deservedly win, I can definitely say that Anora and Mikey Madison were my second favorites. Anora was my first Sean Baker film, and I was not ready for it. The movie and performances are incredibly realistic, conveying all the pain, joy, and discomfort felt by the characters, which can only be achieved through a deep research and understanding of the realities they depict. Sean Baker, as in all his movies, and Mikey Madison alike sure did a good job at this, especially seeing how the actress’ seemingly demure character, in interviews, contrasts with the lively, almost feisty, Anora.

          As for Adrien Brody winning best actor, with The Brutalist, although neither actor nor movie were favorites of mine, it is undeniable that Adrien Brody delivers, once more, an impeccable performance. Nonetheless, I believe that the academy has looked past incredibly talented nominees, namely Timotheé Chalamet in A Complete Unknown, and Colman Domingo in Sing Sing.

          Trump’s USAID Cuts: Humanitarian Disaster Or A Step Toward Self-Reliance? 

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          On March 10th, the Trump Administration announced that 83 percent of the programs run by the U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID) would be canceled. This decision follows a series of actions targeting USAID, including placing its officials on paid leave, discussing the agency’s potential shutdown, and labeling it as being run by “radical left lunatics” and a corrupt institution that misuses taxpayer money. The first major move came with a freeze on approximately 90% of USAID grants and contracts worldwide—making the latest cuts less surprising. 

          Feb. 28, 2025, Washington. A senior advisor at USAID, is consoled by a co-worker after having 15 minutes to clear out her belongings from the USAID headquarters, Friday. (AP Photo/Jacquelyn Martin) 

          In a speech to Congress on March 4th, Trump outlined his reasoning behind these decisions. Reducing “the flagrant waste of taxpayer dollars” is part of his broader strategy to combat inflation, purpose for which the DOGE, the brand-new Department Of Government Efficiency headed by Elon Musk, was created. Trump listed several specific cuts, such as “$8 million to promote LGBTQI+ initiatives in Lesotho, which nobody has ever heard of,” and “$250,000 to increase vegan local climate action innovation in Zambia.” He also mentioned “$47 million for improving learning outcomes in Asia,” sarcastically noting that “Asia is doing very well with learning. You know what we’re doing—could use it ourselves.” Many other initiatives were dismissed as “scams.” 

          However, while some projects may be debated, the impact of these cuts extends to critical humanitarian aid programs. Initiatives preventing malnutrition and combating diseases such as malaria, polio, and AIDS have been shut down, leaving millions vulnerable around the world. 

          From a broader perspective, the decision aligns with a reshaped U.S. national interest—one that takes a narrower, more domestic-focused approach. While foreign aid cuts may contribute to reducing inflation, they also risk undermining stability in conflict-prone regions and weakening diplomatic relations. It remains to be seen what the long-term consequences of this decision will be for the US. 

          Impact on Developing Countries 

          But what can poor countries’ economies expect from such an abrupt dismantling of USAID?  

          It is inevitable that many African countries will face a profound distress, especially in the healthcare sector. For instance, in South Africa, 17% of funding for AIDS treatment comes from PEPFAR (the President’s Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief), which also supports the salaries of more than 15,000 healthcare workers. The situation could be even more critical in Ethiopia, USAID’s largest beneficiary, which receives over $200 million annually to support its healthcare system. 

          However, some argue that heavy reliance on foreign aid is not beneficial for recipient countries. There is no consensus on its overall impact on economic development. Some scholars argue that aid fosters growth through infrastructure improvements, pioneering investments, and attracting foreign capital. Others counter that it distorts labor markets and fosters dependency. Some have also compared foreign aid effects on local economies to the ones of natural resources revenues: these inflows can lead to currency appreciation, making locally produced locally produced tradable goods relatively more expensive and less competitive internationally, triggering the so-called “Dutch Disease” and weaking local manufacturing. 

          Foreign Aid Received in 2023, in US Dollars and adjusted for inflation. Source: OECD, 2025.

          The Debate on Foreign Aid 

          Criticisms against aid arrive also from other Global South Activists, who claim that aid is just charity covering social injustice and perpetuating the colonialist “civilizing mission”.  

          One of the most prominent critics is Dambisa Moyo, a global economist born in Zambia and naturalized as an American. In her 2009 book, Dead Aid – Why Aid Is Not Working and How There Is a Better Way for Africa, she challenges the “greatest myths of our time: that billions of dollars in aid sent from wealthy countries to developing African nations has helped to reduce poverty and increase growth”. Moyo argues that foreign aid fuels corruption, distorts local markets, and creates a vicious cycle of dependency—ultimately increasing poverty rather than alleviating it. Moyo proposes the stop of aid funding, throughout the over a period of five years, as a solution to reduce poverty and improve economic growth and development in African countries.  

          Although Moyo’s plan differs significantly from Trump’s approach and underlying motivations, her perspective raises the question: Could these cuts ultimately push aid-receiving countries toward self-reliance? 

           Regardless of the answer to this question, Trump’s decision carries profound economic and humanitarian consequences for developing nations reliant on these funds, and challenges the West’s long-standing role in Global South development. If these cuts lead to reduced dependence on Western aid, they could open the door for alternative models and standards—ones that might ultimately foster more sustainable growth for recipient countries and prompt a reevaluation of an international cooperation system that has long been in need of reform. 

          Sources

          Al Jazeera, Trump’s USAID freeze must serve as a wake-up call for Africa, available at https://www.aljazeera.com/opinions/2025/3/13/trumps-usaid-freeze-must-serve-as-a-wake-up-call-for-africa 

          Al Jazeera, Why some in the Global South are not mourning the demise of USAID, available at https://www.aljazeera.com/opinions/2025/3/3/why-some-in-the-global-south-are-not-mourning-the-demise-of-usaid 

          AP News, USAID cuts are already hitting countries around the world. Here are 20 projects that have closed, available at https://apnews.com/article/usaid-cuts-hunger-sickness-288b1d3f80d85ad749a6d758a778a5b2 

          Arellano, C., Bulíř, A., Lane, T., &Lipschitz, L. (2009). The dynamic implications of foreign aid and its variability. Journal of Development Economics, 88(1), 87-102. 

          Our World in Data, Foreign Aid Received, available at https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/foreign-aid-received-net 

          The Guardian, Rubio says 83% of USAid programs terminated after six-week purge, available at: https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2025/mar/10/marco-rubio-usaid-funding 

          The Guardian, ‘The impact has been devastating’: how USAid freeze sent shockwaves through Ethiopia, available at https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/ng-interactive/2025/feb/21/the-impact-has-been-devastating-how-usaid-freeze-sent-shockwaves-through-ethiopia 

          The New York Times, All of the Trump Administration’s Major Moves in the First 5151 Days, available at https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2025/us/trump-agenda-2025.html?categories=Foreign+policy 

          The New York Times, U.S. Terminates Funding for Polio, H.I.V., Malaria and Nutrition Programs Around the World, available at https://www.nytimes.com/2025/02/27/health/usaid-contract-terminations.html 

          Cao, W., & Du, D. (2024). Does foreign aid play a role in promoting economic development? Evidence from US aid. Applied Geography, 171, 103394. 

          Zambisa Moyo, Dead Aid, https://dambisamoyo.com/books/ 

          Veronica Guerra

          Research Team Editor & Writer

          Finland’s Education Model – What Makes It One Of The Best In The World

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          Reading time: 5 minutes

          Finland has ranked high in many international education rankings and has the reputation of having one of the best education systems. But why does this country stand out from the rest, what makes it so unique and how can we learn from their method so that we can also improve. 

          Finnish students consistently perform well in PISA (Programme for International Student Assessment) rankings, often placing at or near the top in reading, science, and math. Finland’s education system was reformed in the 1960s and 1970s to promote equality and economic recovery after the country’s wars. Teachers’ training and the shift from an elite system to one with comprehensive schools for all children have been key to the country’s success. This journey began in the 1960s, when Finland transitioned from sorting students into academic and vocational tracks to creating a comprehensive 9-year school system in 1972. This included reforms to teacher education, moving it from training colleges to universities and making a master’s degree a prerequisite by 1979. The reform gave teachers more autonomy and responsibility, culminating in the profession gaining prestige in the 1990s. 

          Decentralization in 1985 gave more power to municipalities, and the national core curriculum in 1994 allowed local schools to design their own curriculum. Teacher autonomy and decentralization took time to develop, with a gradual shift over about two decades. Finland’s success in education, therefore, was built on a long and steady process of reform and gradual shifts in policy, structure, and perception.  
          Let’s dive into the most important factors that differentiate the Finish system from the rest. 

          The Finnish Method

          No Standardized Testing 

          Finland doesn’t rely on standardized tests for assessing students. The only exception is the voluntary National Matriculation Exam at the end of upper-secondary school (similar to high school). Students are graded individually by their teachers, and progress is tracked by the Ministry of Education through sampling across schools. 

          Teacher Accountability 

          Finnish teachers are highly trusted professionals, selected from the top 10% of graduates. They are required to earn a master’s degree and given the freedom to decide the best approach for teaching. Teachers collaborate and are supported by special educators like social workers, psychologists, and nurses. The system emphasizes “whatever it takes” to help students succeed, even for those with learning difficulties or behavioral issues. 

          Cooperation Over Competition 

          Finland’s educational philosophy strives for cooperation rather than competition. There are no rankings for top schools or teachers. The focus is on creating a cooperative learning environment that benefits everyone, rather than promoting competition. 

          Focus on Basic Needs 

          Finland prioritizes social equity, providing free meals, healthcare, psychological counseling, and individualized guidance for students. Education is seen as a tool to reduce social inequality and foster equality. 

          Late Start to School 

          Finnish children begin school at age seven, allowing them a more relaxed early childhood. Compulsory schooling lasts for nine years, and after age 16, further education is optional. This helps students avoid feeling trapped by the school system. 

          Post-School Options 

          Finland offers students choices beyond a traditional university route, such as vocational education programs. Students can choose between a university preparation track or a vocational path, both leading to professional careers. 

          Later Start Times and Shorter School Days  

          Finnish students start school later, around 9:00-9:45 AM, and finish by 2:00-2:45 PM. Research shows that later start times are beneficial for students’ well-being. Schools are structured to focus on holistic learning, with longer breaks and fewer hours of class. 

          Consistent Teacher-Student Relationships 

          In Finland, students often have the same teacher for multiple years, creating a strong bond and trust between teachers and students. This consistency helps teachers better understand individual student needs. 

          Relaxed Learning Environment 

          Finnish schools advocate for less stress and more relaxation. Students have fewer classes and enjoy multiple breaks throughout the day to stretch and socialize. Teachers also benefit from dedicated time to relax and prepare.  

          Minimal Homework 

          Finnish students spend less time on homework compared to students in other countries, averaging just 30 minutes a night. With less outside work, students can focus more on learning without the added pressure of extensive homework. 

          Focus on Equality and Inclusivity 

          They promote equality, aiming to offer the same quality of education to all students, regardless of their background. Over 30% of Finnish children receive special help, and schools are well-equipped to support children with diverse needs, including immigrants. The goal is to mainstream all students and address their individual learning needs. 

          Supportive Government Policies 

          The Finnish government supports families through generous maternity leave, subsidized daycare, free student health care, and public preschool, ensuring all children, even from low-income families, have access to education. 

          Critiques of this system 

          Finland’s exceptional performance in PISA assessments (2000) impressed many, with a unique education system that emphasized less teacher-centric, pupil-led learning. However, its scores have declined in subsequent assessments, raising questions about what went wrong. 

          Declining PISA Scores: Finland now scores below average among OECD countries, with various reasons suggested for this decline. Commonly cited factors include: 

          • Over-digitalization: Excessive use of technology, particularly tablets and laptops, has been linked to lower reading scores, especially among boys, and negatively affected physical activity and sleep schedules. 
          • Mental Health Issues: A decline in student mental health is considered a contributing factor. 
          • Family Social Background: The growing influence of family background on student performance, especially in immigrant communities, has exacerbated inequalities. 
          • Gifted Students: The system struggles to adequately challenge gifted students, which contrasts with systems in countries like those in Asia, where all students are expected to meet the same standards. 

          Gender Gap: Finnish boys consistently underperform compared to girls, particularly in reading. This gender gap is one of the highest among the 74 PISA countries. 

          Budget Cuts: After the 2008 financial crisis, cuts to education budgets have led to teacher shortages, particularly in special education, affecting children with autism and special needs. These cuts have also deepened disparities linked to social and immigrant backgrounds. 

          Social Issues: Immigrant students face difficulties such as racism, lack of support, and a struggle to integrate into society. They also have the lowest reading scores in OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development) countries. 

          Teacher Roles and Structural Problems: Finland’s highly respected teaching profession has become increasingly bureaucratic, shifting teachers’ focus away from instruction to non-teaching tasks. This shift, combined with the pupil-led approach, may have contributed to the decline in PISA scores. 

          Over-digitalization and Its Consequences: The rush to incorporate technology in education, such as giving first graders iPads, has raised concerns. The excessive screen time, especially without filters or limits, has contributed to poorer sleep and concentration, which in turn has affected academic performance. 

          Structural and Policy Recommendations: The article suggests that Finland should address issues such as the gender gap, budget cuts, social inequality, and over-digitalization. Increased cultural awareness and better support for disadvantaged students, along with addressing special education shortages, could help improve the system. 

          Conclusion 

          All in all, Finland’s education system stands as a global benchmark for its focus on equality, teacher professionalism, and holistic student well-being. While the country has experienced impressive success over the years, recent challenges, such as declining PISA scores, over-digitalization, and rising inequalities, highlight the need for ongoing adaptation. To sustain its position as a leader in education, Finland must address these emerging issues by refining its approach to technology, mental health, and inclusivity. By continuing to prioritize cooperation, individualized support, and educational equity, Finland can maintain its reputation as a model for nations striving to create more effective and fair education systems. 

          Sources:
          https://blogs.worldbank.org/en/education/finland-s-education-system-journey-success

          https://www.smithsonianmag.com/innovation/why-are-finlands-schools-successful-49859555/

          https://worldpopulationreview.com/country-rankings/pisa-scores-by-country

          https://www.weforum.org/stories/2018/09/10-reasons-why-finlands-education-system-is-the-best-in-the-world/

          https://bigthink.com/the-present/finland-education-system-criticisms/

          Teresa Catita 

          Research Team Member & Editor

          The Future of Work: Remote Work, Hybrid Models, and the Office’s Evolution

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          Reading time: 3 minutes

          The landscape of work is undergoing a significant transformation, driven by technological advancements, evolving societal attitudes, and global events such as the COVID-19 pandemic. The pandemic acted as a catalyst, accelerating the adoption of remote work and prompting companies to reassess traditional work structures. Central to this evolution are the concepts of remote work, hybrid models, and the reimagining of traditional office spaces. These developments are not only altering the physical location where work occurs but are also reshaping the dynamics of the global workforce.

          Remote Work: A Lasting Change? 

          The adoption of remote work has seen a substantial increase, particularly during the pandemic. Gallup reports that U.S. workers averaged 3.8 remote workdays per month in 2023, a rise from 2.4 days before the pandemic. This shift has led to enhanced productivity for many, as employees experience fewer office-related distractions and a better work-life balance. Additionally, companies can now access a broader talent pool without geographical constraints. 

          However, remote work is not without its challenges. Feelings of isolation and loneliness are common among remote workers, stemming from reduced face-to-face interactions. This can lead to a weakened sense of team cohesion and connection to the company’s culture. Moreover, the blurring of boundaries between personal and professional life can result in difficulties disconnecting from work, potentially leading to burnout. A survey by PwC in 2022 highlighted that 39% of employees were concerned about not receiving adequate training in digital and technology skills from their employers, underscoring the need for ongoing support in a remote setting. 

          Hybrid Models: The Emerging Standard 

          To balance the advantages and drawbacks of remote work, many organizations are adopting hybrid work models, which combine in-office and remote working. A PwC survey found that 46% of companies anticipated implementing a hybrid model by the end of 2022. This approach allows employees to engage in collaborative activities in the office while performing focused tasks remotely. 

          For hybrid models to be effective, a reevaluation of office design is essential.  According to workplace strategy experts, companies are shifting away from the traditional cubicle-based layout in favor of open, flexible spaces that encourage teamwork and innovation. This may involve reducing the number of assigned desks in favor of creating more collaborative spaces that foster teamwork and innovation. Leading companies like Google and Facebook are at the forefront of redesigning their offices to support flexible layouts and incorporate technology that facilitates seamless collaboration between in-office and remote employees. 

          The Office’s Evolution: From Workspace to Collaboration Hub 

          The traditional office is being redefined from a place solely for individual work to a hub for collaboration and creativity. In this new model, the office complements remote work by providing spaces designed for team interactions and innovative endeavors. According to a report by JLL (Jones Lang LaSalle), while global office occupancy rates have declined, there is an increased demand for spaces that support collaborative work. 

          This shift has significant implications for the commercial real estate sector. As companies reduce their physical office spaces, property owners are compelled to offer more flexible leasing options and rethink office configurations to accommodate a more mobile workforce. For instance, some landlords are transforming traditional office buildings into co-working hubs, while others are integrating wellness-oriented designs that include outdoor workspaces, improved ventilation, and enhanced communal areas to foster employee engagement. The focus is now on creating environments that enhance employee experience, promote well-being, and support a variety of work styles. 

          Conclusion 

          The future of work is characterized by flexibility and adaptability. Remote work and hybrid models are becoming integral components of organizational strategies, necessitating a reimagining of the traditional office. As businesses navigate this evolving landscape, they must address the challenges associated with these new work arrangements, such as maintaining company culture, ensuring employee well-being, and providing adequate support and training. By embracing these changes thoughtfully, organizations can create a dynamic work environment that meets the needs of their employees and positions them for success in a rapidly changing world. 

          Sources: news.gallup.com , pwc.com 

          José Afonso Nunes Freitas 

          Research Team Member & Editor

          Neurodiversity in the Workplace: Towards Inclusive and Fair Employment

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          Reading time: 5 minutes

          The Brain – a Masterpiece of Variability 

          In recent years, organisations have increasingly recognised the value of neurodiverse employees, leading to the implementation of inclusive hiring and workplace practices. The term refers to the recognition that neurological differences such as autism, ADHD, dyslexia, and other cognitive variations are natural variations of the human brain rather than deficits. Despite the recognition of neurodiversity, challenges remain, containing biases in recruitment, workplace adaptation, and the reliance on the idea that neurodiversity should primarily be considered from a business perspective. This form of ‘framing’ displays neurodiversity in terms of economic advantage, which can be problematic as it does not acknowledge the need for equity and inclusion in the workplace.

           The Business Case for Neurodiversity: Strengths and Limitations 

          One of the primary motivations for organisations to embrace neurodiversity is its potential to enhance business outcomes. Research suggests that neurodiverse employees can bring unique problem-solving skills, enhanced pattern recognition, and creativity to organisations. Large corporations such as SAP, Microsoft, and JPMorgan Chase have implemented neurodiverse hiring programs with success, specifically in fields requiring attention to detail and logical problem-solving. These programs have improved productivity, innovation, and workplace diversity. 

          Despite these advantages, relying only on the business case for neurodiversity presents significant risks. When inclusion is framed solely in terms of economic gain, it reinforces the idea that employment is justified only if measurable performance benefits are demonstrated. This approach can contribute to the commercialisation of neurodiverse employees, characterising them as extraordinary talents while ignoring other needs and rights. Rather than focusing solely on business benefits, neurodiversity should be approached as a fundamental aspect of workplace equity and inclusion.

          Common Barriers to Employment for Neurodiverse Individuals

          Although awareness of neurodiversity has grown, neurodivergent individuals continue to face significant barriers to employment. One of the most common obstacles is the recruitment and hiring process, which is often not adapted to neurodiverse candidates. Traditional hiring methods, such as structured interviews, frequently disadvantage individuals with neurological differences. For instance, many individuals with autism may struggle with social interaction and eye contact, which can be mistakenly perceived as a lack of competence or enthusiasm. Some companies have recognised this issue and have implemented alternative recruitment methods, such as work trials and skills-based assessments, to ensure fairer evaluations of neurodivergent candidates.

          Another significant hurdle is the difficulty neurodivergent employees face when adapting to traditional workplace environments. Many workplaces are designed with neurotypical employees in mind, which can create challenges for individuals with sensory sensitivities. Common issues include excessive noise, bright lighting, constrained work schedules, and communication styles that do not align with the needs of neurodivergent individuals. Facing these challenges requires specific workplace adjustments, such as providing flexible workspaces, implementing quiet rooms, and offering alternative communication tools to ensure an inclusive and supportive environment. 

          Apart from structural issues, stigma and a lack of awareness remain challenges. Many neurodivergent employees experience discrimination or misunderstanding in the workplace, often due to stereotypes and misconceptions about their abilities. Workplace cultures that prioritise social conformity can exclude neurodiverse individuals, leading to underemployment and dissatisfaction. To create a more inclusive work environment, it is essential to build greater awareness and understanding among all employees.

          Universal Design: Creating an Inclusive Workplace

          To build a truly inclusive workplace, organizations must go beyond individual accommodations and adopt a universal design approach. Universal design refers to the practice of creating workplaces that are accessible and beneficial to all employees, regardless of neurological differences. A key component of universal design is the implementation of flexible workspaces that consider diverse sensory needs. This can include the provision of quiet areas, adjustable lighting, and noise-canceling options to help employees who may struggle with sensory overload.

          Another important aspect of universal design is the embedding of alternative communication methods. Many neurodivergent employees benefit from written instructions, visual cues, and assistive technology that help them process information more effectively. Providing multiple communication formats allows employees to engage in ways that align with their strengths. Additionally, offering flexible work schedules can accommodate different working rhythms, ensuring that all employees have the opportunity to contribute in a way that suits their needs. To make these changes effective, managerial training is crucial. Educating supervisors about neurodiversity helps promote inclusive leadership and reduces biases in performance evaluations, ultimately leading to a more supportive work environment.

          Success Stories in Neurodiverse Hiring

          Several companies have successfully implemented neurodiverse hiring initiatives. SAP, through its Autism at Work Program, has successfully integrated neurodiverse employees into various roles, leading to enhanced problem-solving and innovation. Microsoft’s Neurodiversity Hiring Program focuses on strengths-based hiring, providing specialized training and mentorship to support neurodivergent employees in their professional growth. Similarly, JP Morgan Chase’s Autism at Work Initiative has demonstrated significant improvements in employee retention and job satisfaction by implementing structured support systems tailored to neurodiverse employees’ strengths and challenges. 

          These initiatives highlight the importance of structured support, mentorship, and suitable adjustments to create a more inclusive workplace. They also demonstrate that when properly implemented, neurodiverse hiring strategies can lead to beneficial outcomes for both employees and organizations.

          A Chance to be Taken Seriously

          Embracing neurodiversity in the workplace should not be seen only as a mean to achieve economic gains but as a crucial step towards creating equitable and inclusive employment environments. While the business case argument may serve as an attractive tool for organizations to adopt inclusive practices, it is essential to focus on universal design principles that benefit all employees. Addressing biases in hiring, implementing meaningful workplace adjustments, and enhancing inclusive organisational cultures will not only unlock the full potential of neurodiverse employees but also contribute to a more diverse and innovative workforce. As research and practice continue to evolve, companies must shift from isolated to systemic changes ensuring equity and dignity for all workers including neurodivergent individuals that have equal opportunities to thrive in the workplace.

          Mara Blanz

          Sources

          Austin, R. D., & Sonne, T. (2014). Neurodiversity as a competitive advantage. Harvard Business Review, 92(5), 96-103.

          Khan, M. H., Grabarski, M. K., Ali, M., & Buckmaster, S. (2022). Insights into creating and managing an inclusive neurodiverse workplace for positive outcomes: A multistage theoretical framework. Group & Organisation Management, 48(5), 1339–1386. https://doi.org/10.1177/10596011221133583

          Krzeminska, A., Austin, R. D., Gergen, E., & Mortensen, M. (2019). The advantages and challenges of neurodiversity employment in organisations. Journal of Management & Organization, 25(4), 453-469.

          Silver, J., Pilkington, S., & Kerr, M. (2023). Beyond the business case: Universally designing the workplace for neurodiversity and inclusion. Journal of Workplace Inclusion, 12(2), 78-102.

          Weber, M., Thompson, C., & Allen, J. (2022). Physical workplace adjustments to support neurodivergent workers: A systematic review. Applied Psychology, 71(4), 890-912.Volpone, S. D., Thomas, K. M., & Avery, D. R. (2022). Addressing stigma and fostering inclusion in neurodiverse workplaces. Diversity & Inclusion Journal, 15(3), 67-89

          The Neuroscience of Art Therapy: How It Heals Differently from Talk Therapy

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          Reading time: 6 minutes

          “Art is my therapy,” many say, as they lose themselves in the rhythm of creation. But what if art was more than a refuge—what if it was a science, a structured pathway to healing, sculpted by trained hands and studied minds? Beneath every brushstroke, every swirl of ink, lies a neurological symphony, a dance of colors and cognition that soothes, reveals, and transforms. Why does the mind surrender so effortlessly to creation? And why do some find solace in pigments and texture rather than in spoken words? Step closer—let’s unravel the alchemy of art and its profound dialogue with the brain.

          Introduction

          In order to have some background on this topic is important to understand that art therapy is a form of psychotherapythat uses art media to improve well-being. It was first described by Adrian Hill (British artist, writer, art therapist, educatorand broadcaster) in the 1940s as a way to engage patients and address emotional conflict. Also, it’s crucial to know thatclinical appointments are split into two parts: the art as therapy (the creative process itself is therapeutic) and theanalytical art psychotherapy (in which therapists use psychoanalytic theory to explore the unconscious through artwork). So, it’s not simply defined by the creative process itself, there’s also psychoanalysis along with it.

          Although theoretical at this point, these tenets propose mechanisms of change through art therapy based on observations of clinical sessions:

          • The art-making process and the artwork itself are integral components of treatment that help to understand and elicit verbal and non-verbal communication within an attuned therapeutic relationship;
          • Creative expression is healing and life enhancing;
          • The materials and methods utilized affect self-expression, assist in emotional self-regulation, and are applied in specialized ways.

          Neuroscience

          Neuroscience offers insights into how art therapy works, especially in understanding traumatic memories, stress, emotions, and the brain’s response during art making. This helps explain why people are drawn to art and the effects of it on the brain and body.

          Let’s start by learning the brain mechanisms linked to this. First of all: art leverages neuroplasticity (the brain’s ability to form new neural connections), promoting cognitive flexibility and resilience, particularly in trauma recovery and neurological injury. It is also connected to emotional regulation and the limbic system (a group of interconnected brain structures that help regulate your emotions and behavior). This happens because there’s influence on brain areas like the amygdala and hippocampus, helping to process traumatic memories and regulate emotions. Studies have shown reduced amygdala activity during this process, leading to reduced anxiety. Also, it engages multiple sensory modalities,enhancing sensory integration and processing, which is beneficial for conditions like autism spectrum disorder and sensory processing disorders.

          Due to all this factors, it can be great at: helping patients suffering from PTSD, as it aids in processing traumatic memories and improve emotional regulation; or during neurorehabilitation, when it comes to recovery in stroke survivors and traumatic brain injury patients because it engages brain regions involved in motor control and visual-spatialprocessing.

          Now that some foundational concepts have been discussed I believe it’s also relevant to present some studies and models that improve our perception of this subject.

          Giacomo Rizzolatti’s (Italian neurophysiologist) study on mirror neurons explains how observing someone create art activates similar neural pathways in the observer. This process causes subtle neural changes that mirror the emotions of the creator, fostering an empathic exchange between artist and viewer. This neurological response enhances communication and emotional connection, showing how art therapy can deepen interpersonal understanding.

          Carole McNamee (art therapist, 2003, 2006) studied how bilateral stimulation in art making (using both hands) activates both hemispheres of the brain and facilitates memory retrieval and integration. This aligns with Eye Movement Desensitization and Reprocessing (EMDR), an evidence-based trauma therapy developed by Francine Shapiro(American psychologist, 2001).

          McNamee suggested that using both hands to create art can invoke memories stored in the left and right hemispheres, promoting systemic reprocessing and emotional healing.

          To expand on Shapiro’s EMDR model, Tally Tripp (Licensed Clinical Social Worker, Board- Certified Art Therapist, and Certified Trauma Therapist, 2007, 2016) created a model by incorporating art making into trauma therapy. He proposed that creating artwork allows clients to visually transform traumatic memories, turning them into a tangible representation that helps process and integrate the experience.

          Similarly, Linda Chapman (art therapist and educator) Diane Morabito, Chris Ladakakos, Herbert Schreier, and M. Margaret Knudson (2001) researched how bilateral hand use in art therapy could optimize brain function in pediatric trauma patients.

          They developed the Chapman Art Therapy Treatment Intervention (CATTI), which follows these steps:

          1. Bilateral scribble drawing – Activates the emotion-centered limbic system.
          2. Cognitive processing – The child describes the artwork, shifting brain activity to the prefrontal cortex and encouraging logical storytelling.

          This intervention helps children process trauma by engaging both emotional and cognitive brain functions.

          Later, Linda Chapman (2014) also created a four-phase neurodevelopmental model of art therapy that aligns with brain development and trauma processing:

          1. Self Phase (Brainstem Activation) – Focuses on basic survival responses, body awareness, and sensory regulation.
          2. Problem Phase (Limbic System Activation) – Involves processing emotions, fight-or- flight responses, and traumatic memories.
          3. Transformation Phase (Cerebrum Activation) – Uses higher-order thinking to reframe traumatic experiences.
          4. Integration Phase (Prefrontal Cortex Activation) – Helps clients gain insight, process experiences, and integrate them into their self-concept.

          Chapman’s model incorporates sensory-motor art techniques and therapeutic games to promote neural development, particularly in:

          • Right-brain functions (creative and emotional processing).
          • Visual and tactile perception (enhancing sensory awareness).
          • Gross and fine motor skills (improving movement coordination).
          • Auditory, vestibular, and proprioceptive development (enhancing balance, spatial awareness, and sensory integration).

          These techniques create relational exchanges between the child and therapist or caregiver, mimicking early parent-child interactions to support emotional and neurological healing.

          Art-therapy vs. Talk-Therapy and their benefits

          Art Therapy

          A form of psychotherapy that uses creative processes like drawing, painting, and sculpting to explore emotions and enhance self-awareness. It’s a non-verbal way of expressing thoughts and emotions.

          Benefits:

          • Effective for individuals who struggle to articulate emotions verbally, such as children, trauma survivors, or those with developmental disabilities.
          • Provides a safe, supportive space for self-expression without judgment.
          • It can be beneficial for trauma survivors, as it allows exploration of sensitive topics indirectly, reducing the risk of re-traumatization.

          Traditional Therapy

          Includes approaches like cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT), psychodynamic therapy, and humanistic therapy, which relies on verbal communication to explore thoughts, feelings, and behaviors.

          Benefits:

          • Focuses on cognitive restructuring and problem-solving skills to help clients challenge negative thought patterns and improve coping strategies.
          • It promotes insight into behavior and emotions, facilitating lasting behavior change.
          • Well-suited for individuals seeking a structured, directive approach to therapy.

          So, to make a final comparison, art therapy is particularly helpful for those who prefer a more creative, indirect way to express their feelings, especially when verbal communication is difficult. It’s a strong choice for individuals dealing with trauma, developmental issues, or difficulty with direct verbal communication. On the other hand, traditional therapy provides structured frameworks for addressing specific symptoms and is well-suited for those looking for a more directive approach with a focus on cognitive and behavioral changes.

          Conclusion

          Art therapy is more than a creative practice, it is a pathway to healing that speaks in colors, shapes, and movement whenwords fall short. Neuroscience reveals its power, showing how the creative process activates neuroplasticity, helping the brain rewire itself after trauma, regulate emotions, and restore balance. By engaging areas like the amygdala and hippocampus, art therapy soothes anxiety, processes memories, and strengthens cognitive function. Studies on mirrorneurons and bilateral stimulation further highlight how creating art can foster deeper self- awareness and emotional integration.

          While traditional talk therapy relies on verbal expression and structured cognitive techniques, art therapy offers a moreintuitive and sensory-driven approach. It is especially valuable for those who struggle to articulate their emotions,providing a safe and transformative space for healing. Whether through words or images, both therapies offer meaningful ways to navigate the mind— but for many, the silent language of art reaches where words cannot.

          Teresa Catita

          Research Member & Editor

          Sources

          Blog – Art Therapy neuroscience. (n.d.). Retrieved February 19, 2025, from https://www.artstherapies.org/blog/art-therapy-neuroscience

          Art therapy through a neuroscience lens. (n.d.). Ebrary. Retrieved 19 February 2025, from https://ebrary.net/39567/health/therapy_through_neuroscience_lens

          Davenport, E. (2024, March 11). Art therapy vs. Traditional therapy. Davenport Creative Arts Therapy, PLLC. https://www.davenportcreativeartstherapy.com/blog/art-therapy-vs-traditional-therapy?.com

          Cheng, C., Elamin, M. E., May, H., & Kennedy, M. (2023). Drawing on emotions: the evolving role of art therapy. Irish Journal of Psychological Medicine, 40(3), 500–502.

          King, J. L., & Kaimal, G. (2019). Approaches to research in art therapy using imaging technologies. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 13, 159.

          Kendra Cherry, M. (2009, May 16). How art therapy works. Verywell Mind. https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-art-therapy-2795755

          What is art therapy? (2023, May 13). American Art Therapy Association. https://arttherapy.org/what-is-art-therapy/