Author: Awareness News

Black Gold in Flames: How the Iran War Is Reshaping Global Oil Markets 

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On February 28, 2026, U.S. and Israeli forces launched strikes on Iran, triggering a conflict that sent shockwaves far beyond the Middle East. Within days, one of the world’s most critical energy arteries,  the Strait of Hormuz, was declared closed by Iranianforces, causing what the International Energy Agency (IEA) has defined as the “largest supply disruption in the history of the global oil market.”  

Oil prices have reached levels not seen in years and inflationary pressures are mounting globally. To understand how bad this crisis actually is, one must first understand the centrality of the Strait of Hormuz to the global energy system. 

The Strait of Hormuz: The World’s Most Critical Chokepoint 

The Strait of Hormuz is a narrow waterway, barely 33 kilometres wide at its narrowest point, separating Iran from Oman. Yet through this sliver of ocean flows roughly 27-30% of the world’s maritime crude oil and petroleum trade, along with significant volumes of liquefied natural gas (LNG). Any disruption here is felt almost immediately in markets from Tokyo to London. 

Starting on March 4, 2026, Iranian forces declared the Strait “closed,” threatening and attacking on vessels attempting transit. Oil-producing nations of the Gulf (Kuwait, Iraq, Saudi Arabia, and the UAE) saw their collective output drop by at least 10 million barrels per day by mid-March. QatarEnergy, the world’s largest LNG exporter, declared force majeure on all its contracts as tankers could not leave the Gulf.  

To notice is that Asian economies together receive around 84% of crude oil and 83% of LNG transiting the Strait, hence being the ones most exposed. 

Figure 1: The Strait of Hormuz, through which roughly 30% of the world’s seaborne oil trade passes. Source: Forbes. 

A Shock Without Precedent: Price Surges and Market Volatility 

Oil markets have not been a stranger to geopolitical shocks.  

When Russia invaded Ukraine in February 2022, Brent crude surged past $100 per barrel as markets priced in the risk of supply disruptions from one of the world’s largest energy producers. That spike, dramatic as it was, didn’t last long. 

The 2026 Iran war, instead, has produced a shock of an entirely different magnitude. As the chart below illustrates, the current price surge has already eclipsed the Russia-Ukraine spike in both speed and scale. 

As the Strait closed and Gulf output collapsed, prices climbed relentlessly. March 2026 saw one of the largest single-month oil price jumps ever recorded: Brent gained 51% in a single month, peaking at nearly $120 per barrel. By late April, with peace negotiations stalled and the Strait still functionally closed, Brent briefly touched $126, a four-year high not seen since the most acute phase of the Russia-Ukraine energy crisis. 

Figure 2: Brent crude oil price per barrel (US$), 2021–2026. The chart highlights two defining shocks: the 2022 Russia-Ukraine spike and the steeper, faster surge following the US and Israel attack on Iran in February 2026. Source: Bloomberg / BBC News, data to 30 Apr 2026. 

But it is not only price levels that make these two events different. The 2022 shock was driven by fears of reduced Russian supply, which the market eventually adapted to through rerouted trade flows. The 2026 crisis saw the physical closure of a chokepointthrough which there is no realistic alternative route for most Gulf producers. 

“The market hasn’t seen the full impact of that yet. There’s more to come if the strait remains closed.”  

Darren Woods (CEO of Exxon Mobil, May 1, 2026) 

Ripple Effects: The Global Economy Under Pressure 

The impact of this supply shock extends well beyond gasoline prices. Inflation and stagflation risk have moved to the top of the agenda for central banks. Analysts have forecast that if disruptions persist, global inflation could rise by up to 0.8 percentagepoints, with the risk of stagflation, a combination of slow growth and rising prices, for major economies. The United Nations Secretary-General warned that if the war continues throughout 2026, the world will “confront the specter of a global recession,” addingthat “the consequences are not cumulative – they are exponential.” 

The Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) states themselves have not been spared. Over 80% of the region’s caloric intake is imported via the Strait, and by mid-March roughly 70% of food imports were disrupted, creating a concurrent grocery supply emergency. This adds a wider humanitarian dimension to what began as an energy crisis. 

Figure 3: Crude oil and condensate exports through the Strait of Hormuz by destination country (Q1 2025). China alone accounts for 37.7% of total flows, followed by India (14.7%), South Korea (12.0%), and Japan (10.9%) Source: Visual Capitalist / U.S. Energy InformationAdministration (EIA). 

The Philippines became the first country to declare a national energy emergency on March 24, 2026, importing 98% of its oil from the Middle East. Nepal restricted gas cylinder refills. Myanmar imposed alternate-day driving rules. Aviation has beenseverely disrupted across flight corridors linking Africa, Asia, and Europe.  

Meanwhile, the crisis has created stark divides: the United States, as the world’s largest oil producer, saw crude and petroleum exports surge to nearly 12.9 million barrels per day in April 2026, while oil-importing nations in Asia and Africa bore the heaviest burden. 

Looking Ahead: What Comes Next? 

As of early May 2026, the situation remains deeply uncertain. Brent crude is trading around $108–$112 per barrel, lurching with every twist in diplomatic negotiations conducted through Pakistani mediators. Commodity Context founder Rory Johnston has cautioned that even a sustained reopening of the Strait would trigger only a temporary price relief, as supply chain bottlenecks, infrastructure damage, and production outages would likely anchor Brent in the $80–$90 range, well above pre-crisis levels, for the foreseeable future. 

The damage to LNG infrastructure compounds the problem. Qatar’s Ras Laffan complex, struck by Iranian missiles on March 18, faces an estimated 3 to 5 years of repair work, sending LNG spot prices in Asia up by over 140%. With strategic petroleumreserves being drawn down and commercial inventories depleted, Exxon’s Woods has warned that prices may need to rise further to curb demand once those buffers run out. 

The crisis has also injected new urgency into the debate around energy security and the green transition.  

As the chart above makes clear, oil markets remain acutely vulnerable to geopolitical disruption. Whether the lesson is finally taken seriously may prove to be one of the most consequential legacies of the 2026 Iran war. 

Sources 

CNBC; Bloomberg; Forbes; CBS News; Congressional Research Service; BBC News; Reuters; Visual Capitalist; U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA)

Rebecca Fratello 

Writer

DJ Systems and DJ Types 

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There’s a tendency to treat DJ setups as preference. Vinyl if it’s about authenticity, controllers if it’s about convenience, DVS if it’s somewhere in between. The assumption is that the core skill stays the same and the equipment just changes how it’s executed. 

In practice, that’s not what happens. 

Each system trains different habits. Not in a philosophical way, but in very concrete, repeatable situations: how tracks are started, how timing is handled, how mistakes are corrected, how quickly decisions are made. After a few months, those differences stop being technical and start becoming instinctive. The same person, using a different setup long enough, would not mix in the same way. 

On Vinyl, Timing Never Settles 

With vinyl, even a clean mix isn’t stable. Two tracks that sound aligned will slowly drift apart. It’s not dramatic, but it’s constant. That means timing isn’t something that gets “fixed” once – it’s something that has to be maintained the entire time the tracks are playing together. 

In practical terms, that leads to constant small adjustments. A slight push on the record to speed it up, a gentle drag to slow it down, a quick touch to bring things back into place. None of these are big corrections. Most of them are barely visible, but they happen continuously. 

This builds a very specific skill: noticing drift early. Not when it’s already obvious, but when it’s just starting. After a while, it becomes possible to feel when a track is moving ahead or falling behind before it’s clearly audible. 

It also changes how transitions are approached. Because there’s no visual reference for phrasing, structure is learned through repetition. Tracks are recognized by how they unfold, not by where they sit on a screen. Starting a track at the right moment becomes a matter of internal timing, not external alignment. 

Mistakes take longer to fix. If a track is brought in too early or slightly off, the correction happens gradually. There’s no instant reset. That makes hesitation less useful – waiting doesn’t provide more certainty. Decisions tend to be made earlier and then adjusted in real time if needed. 

With DVS, Timing Can Be Checked Instead of Felt 

DVS setups keep the turntables but add a screen with information: waveforms, beat grids, cue points. The physical interaction stays the same, but timing no longer has to rely entirely on hearing. 

If a mix feels slightly off, it’s possible to glance at the waveform and see it. If phrasing is uncertain, it can be confirmed visually. The system provides a second layer of feedback that wasn’t there before. 

This changes how decisions are made. Instead of committing based only on what is heard, there is the option to verify first. Transitions can be delayed slightly until things are clearer. The timing of drops and breakdowns becomes easier to anticipate. 

The benefit is control. Mistakes are caught earlier. Alignment can be corrected faster. Larger music libraries become manageable because tracks can be searched and previewed quickly. 

At the same time, the reliance on internal timing decreases. When information is available, it gets used. The ear is still active, but it’s no longer the only reference point. 

Another shift happens in how attention is distributed. On vinyl, most of the focus sits on the mix itself. With DVS, attention is split between the decks and the screen – managing the current transition while scanning for what comes next. The skill becomes not just mixing, but handling multiple inputs without losing track of what’s playing. 

On Controllers, Timing Becomes an Action, not a Process 

Controllers and CDJs take the digital side further. Timing is structured and visible. Beat grids show alignment. Cue points mark exact entry moments. Tracks can be started precisely on beat without manual adjustment. 

This removes the need for continuous correction. Instead of keeping two tracks aligned, the focus shifts to starting them correctly. Once they’re in, the system keeps them together. 

That turns timing into something discrete. A track is either started at the right moment or not. There’s less in-between. The process becomes: prepare, then execute. 

This allows for speed. Transitions can happen faster because less time is spent adjusting. It also allows for more complex techniques – looping sections, layering tracks, jumping between cue points – all of which depend on precise timing that would be difficult to maintain manually. 

The trade-off is that small timing adjustments are no longer part of the process. There’s no need to constantly monitor alignment, so that skill doesn’t develop in the same way. Instead, the focus shifts toward structuring the set and choosing the right moment to act. 

Preparation Starts Before the Set 

One of the biggest differences in digital setups is how much happens before playing. 

Tracks are organized in advance. Cue points are set. Sections are marked. Playlists are built for different situations. Part of the work is done away from the decks, deciding how tracks might fit together before they’re ever played. 

This changes the role of memory. On vinyl, knowing a track means remembering how it sounds and when things happen. On digital systems, some of that knowledge is stored externally. It’s visible on the screen, ready to be used. 

During the set, this speeds things up. Instead of recalling details, they can be recognized instantly. The focus shifts from remembering to navigating. 

That also changes the feeling of the set itself. It’s less about discovering what works in the moment and more about choosing between options that were already prepared. 

Mistakes Behave Differently Depending on the Setup 

The way mistakes play out has a direct effect on how risks are taken. 

On vinyl, fixing a mistake takes time. If two tracks fall out of sync or a transition is poorly timed, the correction is gradual and often noticeable. This makes mistakes more expensive and encourages more careful decisions. 

On digital systems, mistakes are easier to hide. A track can be re-cued instantly. A loop can extend a section to buy time. Alignment can be fixed quickly. Because the cost is lower, it becomes easier to experiment. 

This doesn’t just affect outcomes – it affects behavior. The same DJ is likely to take more risks on a system where recovery is quick than on one where mistakes linger. 

Track Selection Changes with the System 

The way music is chosen also shifts. 

With vinyl, the number of available tracks in a set is limited. Each one tends to be well known, played multiple times, understood in detail. Selection is constrained, but intentional. 

With digital systems, the limitation disappears. Hundreds or thousands of tracks can be accessed. Selection becomes faster, but familiarity with each track may be shallower. 

This leads to different strengths. Vinyl DJs often rely on deep knowledge of fewer tracks. Digital DJs rely on quickly filtering through many options to find what fits the moment. 

What Actually Changes 

The basic task stays the same: choosing what to play next and when to bring it in. 

What changes is everything around that decision. How much information is available. How quickly can a mistake be fixed. How much can be prepared in advance. Whether timing is something that has to be maintained or something that can be executed once and left alone. 

Those differences shape how the decision is made. Not just what gets played, but how confidently, how quickly, and under what conditions. 

The Setup Trains the DJ 

After enough time, the equipment stops feeling like a separate thing. The focus shifts to the music, the flow of the set, the reaction of the room. But by then, the system has already done its work. 

It has trained certain responses. When to act, how to correct, how much to rely on instinct versus information. It has defined what feels natural under pressure. 

So the difference between vinyl, DVS, and controllers isn’t just technical. It’s practical. Each one builds a different kind of consistency, a different kind of confidence, and a different way of handling the same moment – deciding what comes next and committing to it. 

Teresa Catita

Editor and Writer

“Years And Years”: The Series That Predicted World Future 

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Image 1- The Lyons family  

Broadcasted in 2019, the television series Years and Years functioned less as traditional science fiction and more as a sociological simulation. By extrapolating the geopolitical, technological, and economic data available at the end of the 2010s, the series constructed a near-future timeline that closely mirrors the stark reality of the 2020s. To ground these macro-level global crises, the narrative anchors itself to the Lyons family, an ordinary household whose members serve as micro-level case studies. Over a span of fifteen years, the series documents the family’s diverging reactions as they are directly impacted by unfolding historical events, experiencing everything from financial displacement and political radicalization to technological assimilation and refugee advocacy. Through a comparative analysis of the series’ fictional timeline and our contemporary global situation, it becomes evident that the broadcast was highly predictive. It successfully forecasted events such as the war in Ukraine, the death of Queen Elizabeth II in 2022, a second term for Donald Trump, and the sweeping rise of global populism. By analysing its correlation to our current reality, we can learn from the Lyons family’s reactions to these unprecedented societal shifts. 

The Statistical Rise of Global Populism 

Image 2- Emma Thompson as Vivienne Rock 

In Years and Years, the character Vivienne Rook embodies the rapid ascent of modern populist movements. Initially dismissed as a fringe, controversial entertainer, Rook leverages anti-establishment rhetoric and unfiltered broadcasting to bypass traditional political decorum, ultimately being elected Prime-Minister of the United Kingdom and securing immense executive power. When cross-referenced with real-world political data from the late 2010s through the 2020s, this fictional trajectory accurately mirrors the measurable global shift toward populist leadership. Data collected by prominent political science organizations, such as the Tony Blair Institute for Global Change and the Pew Research Centre, demonstrates a verifiable surge in populist electoral success during this period. The fictional trajectory mirrors reality: between 2018 and 2023, right-wing populist movements successfully transitioned from the political fringe to securing executive power in nations such as Italy, Argentina, and the Netherlands, while maintaining immense, disruptive electoral influence in the United States and France. Rather than an isolated anomaly, this trend reflects a broader, systemic reaction against globalization, economic stagnation, and institutional distrust. The narrative uses the Lyons family to illustrate how a populace fractures in response to this political shift. Rosie Lyons serves as the target demographic for populist messaging, feeling economically marginalized, she enthusiastically embraces Rook’s blunt, anti-establishment rhetoric, demonstrating how populism capitalizes on working-class disenfranchisement. Conversely, Edith Lyons represents fierce ideological resistance, dedicating herself to actively exposing the human rights abuses enacted by Rook’s administration. Perhaps most critically, the matriarch Muriel and her grandson Stephen illustrate the mechanics of complicity. Muriel’s attributes Rook’s rise to the everyday apathy and consumerism, small actions that most of society adopted that in the long run turned helped building this scenario. While Stephen’s eventual employment managing Rook’s secret immigration detention centres demonstrates how personal financial ruin can drive educated citizens to collaborate with extremist policies.  

Image 3- Pew Research Center study demonstrating the predicted rise of populism 

Geopolitical Escalation: The War in Ukraine 

Continuing the analysis of the Lyons family, the series uses their experiences to map the human cost of severe geopolitical instability, most notably predicting the escalation of the Russia-Ukraine conflict. In the narrative, Daniel Lyons’ relationship with Viktor, a Ukrainian refugee fleeing persecution and conflict, serves to bring the abstract concept of war directly into the domestic sphere of an ordinary British family. Written in 2018 and aired in 2019, the show depicted a Russian military incursion into Ukraine that subsequently triggers a catastrophic, continent-wide displacement. When analysing geopolitical events from February 2022 onward, the series’ timeline stands as a strikingly accurate forecast of the massive humanitarian fallout that occurred.According to empirical data from the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), the real-world invasion displaced millions of citizens within weeks, closely mirroring the systemic European border crises and overwhelmed infrastructure depicted on screen. The show correctly anticipated that the ripple effects of such a conflict would not remain localized but would instead fundamentally alter international immigration policies and border security protocols across the continent. As noted in international security analyses following the real-world invasion: “The sudden displacement caused by the 2022 escalation created the fastest-growing refugee crisis in Europe since the Second World War, exposing the fragility of modern international asylum frameworks.” Furthermore, we can, on the micro-level analysis, watch the different approaches used by some members of the family to illustrate polarized societal responses to such crises. Daniel Lyons represents direct humanitarian empathy, his relationship with Viktor, a Ukrainian refugee fleeing persecution, highlights the desperate and often fatal lengths individuals endure to circumvent broken immigration systems. With a much different approach, his sister Rosie represents the growing societal apathy and distrust toward immigrants. Her character illustrates how economic disenfranchisement can lead ordinary citizens to embrace isolationist policies and reject global humanitarian responsibilities. Both these characters represent with precision the currentpolarized debate of this topic around the world. 

Technological Assimilation: Artificial Intelligence 

Finally, the series utilizes the youngest generation of the Lyons family to examine the profound sociological impact of exponential technological advancement. The character of Bethany embodies the concept of “transhumanism”—a growing desire to transcend the physical body by integrating cybernetic implants and, ultimately, uploading human consciousness to the cloud. Concurrently, the broader societal backdrop of the show depicts widespread economic anxiety as advanced algorithms rapidly displace traditional cognitive labour and professional services, this is an example that happened with the character Celeste, since her job as an accountant was taken by Artificial Intelligence. While full digital consciousness remains theoretical, the series’ depiction of severe workforce automation and the normalization of human-computer interfacing perfectly mirrors the explosive, disruptive growth of the modern Artificial Intelligence sector. According to the World Economic Forum’s Future of Jobs Reportand data from the Stanford University Artificial Intelligence Index, the real-world integration of generative AI (such as Large Language Models) has accelerated at an unprecedented rate since 2022, threatening millions of white-collar roles previously thought immune to automation. Furthermore, actual advancements in neurotechnology, such as successful clinical trials for brain-computer interfaces like Neuralink, demonstrate that the biological-technological merger desired by Bethany is actively transitioning from speculative fiction into medical reality. As highlighted in recent technological labour analyses, “The current acceleration of generative algorithms represents a fundamental restructuring of the global workforce, wherein cognitive automation will rapidly displace traditional roles while simultaneously demanding new, untested frameworks for human-machine integration.” 

Ultimately, Years and Years transcends typical speculative fiction by operating as a data-driven sociological forecast. Through the grounded experiences of the Lyons family, the series provided a highly accurate, predictive model of the 2020s. The show successfully demonstrated that the cascading crises of our current decade, the surge of populist governments, the humanitarian catastrophe in Ukraine, and the disruptive integration of Artificial Intelligence, were not sudden anomalies, but the inevitable results of measurable 2019 data trends. By treating the series as a historical case study rather than mere entertainment, we can observe that predictive media serves as a vital tool for societal awareness. The polarized reactions of the Lyons family illustrate a deeply fractured society, yet they also highlight humanity’s inherent, relentless capacity for adaptation. While the societal norms we accept as common today may become entirely unrecognizable in the years ahead, the series proves that we are never truly flying blind, we can always catch a glimpse of what is approaching. The true warning of Years and Years is not that the future is predetermined, but that it is actively unfolding in the present, visible to anyone willing to critically observe the shifting realities of our society. 

Sources: 

  • Years and Years TV series- BBC 

Guilherme Mendonça  

Writer

          Stuck In Motion: The Challenges of Urban Mobility in the Lisbon Metropolitan Area 

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          For nearly three million people spread across the Lisbon Metropolitan Area (AML), getting from home to work is rarely simple, and getting there on time is never guaranteed. While there have been efforts to improve public transport, promote sustainability, and modernize infrastructure, progress has often been slow and uneven. At the same time, the region continues to struggle with congestion, inequality in access, and structural inefficiencies that hinder its long-term development. As Lisbon grows into a more dynamic capital, attracting tourists, digital nomads, and investment, its mobility system is increasingly under pressure to evolve. 

          This article explores the key challenges shaping urban mobility in the AML, combining structural analysis with the lived reality of daily commuters navigating an increasingly strained system. 

          A Growing Metropolitan Complexity 

          The Lisbon Metropolitan Area is home to nearly three million people, spread across 18 municipalities on both sides of the Tejo River. While the city of Lisbon itself is relatively compact, the surrounding suburbs (such as Amadora, Sintra, Almada, and Loures) have experienced significant population growth over the past decades. This expansion has led to a classic metropolitan challenge: people live far from where they work. 

          For many residents, this translates into long, multi-modal commutes that are not only time-consuming but also unpredictable. A typical journey from Sintra or Margem Sul into central Lisbon can easily exceed one hour each way, particularly when connections fail or services are disrupted. What appears on paper as an integrated system often feels fragmented in practice. 

          The Dominance of Private Cars 

          Despite policy efforts, private cars remain deeply embedded in Lisbon’s mobility structure. This reflects gaps in public transport reliability, coverage, and convenience. 

          When you can’t count on your train running on time, when buses are overcrowded and connections are poorly synced, the car becomes the “safe” option: not because people love sitting in traffic in IC19 or the 25 de Abril Bridge, but because at least the delay is somewhat predictable. 

          This creates an obvious feedback loop: more cars mean more congestion, more congestion makes bus routes slower, slower buses push more people into cars, and the loop repeats itself. 

          The Metro: A Network That Stopped Growing  

          Lisbon’s public transport system has improved in affordability and integration due to the Navegante pass, but its operational reality remains inconsistent. 

          A great example is the metro system. Despite being the backbone of urban mobility, it has not opened a new station in 10 years. Expansion projects, such as the Circular Line and the Red Line extension to Alcântara, face repeated delays and funding uncertainties (just recently was announced an extra €48M for the Circular Line, which was supposed to be open by 2023), raising doubts about their timelines and effectiveness.  

          At the same time, ongoing works, while necessary, have created disruptions across the network. The construction of the future Santos station, for example, has led to recurring service interruptions affecting both metro and rail connections in the Cascais line. 

          The planned Circular line introduces another layer of controversy: once it’s running, it will break the current direct connection between Odivelas and the city center, forcing passengers to change lines at Campo Grande. While the project aims to improve overall network efficiency, it risks concentrating even more pressure on an already busy interchange. For daily commuters, this means an additional transfer, longer travel time and more crowding at a station already running close to its limit at peak hours. 

          The Rail Experience: Daily Frictions 

          For many commuters, the real test of Lisbon’s mobility system lies in its suburban rail lines. 

          On the Cascais Line, modernization has been ongoing for several years, aiming to improve infrastructure, electrification systems, and long-term service quality. However, the process itself has caused recurring disruptions, including partial closures, replacement bus services, and timetable instability. 

          Similarly, on the Sintra Line, the busiest in the country, commuters have experienced declining service frequency in routes to and from Rossio during peak hours, from 10 to 15 minute intervals, making trains and platforms ever more crowded as the suburban population continues to grow. 

          These aren’t simple inconveniences. For regular commuters, a missed train cascades into a late arrival, a missed meeting, a stressed morning. On top of these disruptions, recurrent strikes affecting CP services turn the suburban rail network into complete chaos. 

          Housing Pressures and Mobility Inequality 

          Urban mobility in Lisbon cannot be understood without considering housing dynamics. As central Lisbon became unaffordable, people moved to the periphery. Now the periphery is becoming unaffordable too, pushing people even further out: into longer commutes, more strained networks, and further from the services they use. The transport system absorbs the consequences of failed housing policy decisions, and it also creates a clear divide: those who can afford to live closer to the center enjoy shorter, more reliable commutes, while others face longer, more uncertain journeys. 

          Mobility, in this sense, becomes a marker of inequality, both in time and in quality of life. 

          Governance and Execution Gaps 

          One of the most persistent challenges in Lisbon’s mobility system is not the lack of plans, but the difficulty of executing them. Large-scale projects, like the planned metro expansion, the new airport and the third crossing of the Tejo continuously face delays due to governance problems, legal challenges and inconsistency in funding. 

          At the same time, coordination between municipalities and transport operators remains inconsistent, leading to fragmented solutions rather than a cohesive metropolitan strategy. 

          Potential Paths Forward  

          From the perspective of someone who uses public transport daily, improving urban mobility in Lisbon requires consistent, targeted improvements: 

          Prioritize reliability over expansion: Before building new lines, ensuring that existing services run frequently and on time would have an immediate impact on users’ lives. 

          Stabilizing ongoing projects: Minimizing disruptions during infrastructure works, like in the Cascais line, should be a priority to maintain user trust. 

          Better frequency management: Increasing peak-hour frequency on high-demand lines like Sintra would reduce overcrowding and improve system efficiency. 

          Integrated planning: Transport, housing, and urban development policies must be aligned to reduce commuting distances rather than simply accommodate them. 

          User-centered design: Decisions about routes, transfers, and infrastructure should reflect how residents actually move through the city and their necessities. 

          Transparent timelines: Clear communication about delays and project timelines can help rebuild trust in public transport institutions. 

          Conclusion: A System in Transition 

          Urban mobility in the Lisbon Metropolitan Area has stopped being just an infrastructure problem. It has become a question of direction and at this point, patching things up as they break isn’t keeping pace with how much the region has grown and how complex it’s become. 

          For the people using the system every day, the frustration isn’t that nothing is being built. It’s that what gets built doesn’t always translate into a better experience. Every delayed train, every overcrowded platform, every unnecessary transfer erodes something that’s hard to rebuild once it’s gone: the basic trust that public transport will do what it’s supposed to do. And without that trust, even the most ambitious plans risk falling flat. 

          The choice that Lisbon faces isn’t really complicated to describe, but it’s hard to execute. Keep reacting to problems as they pile up, or commit to a system that works consistently, for everyone, not just for those who can afford to live close enough to the center to make it work. That means new infrastructure, yes, but more than that it means reliability, coordination, and honesty about what’s been promised and what’s been delivered. 

          Because in the end, urban mobility is about shaping how people live, work, and access opportunities. If Lisbon wants to remain a competitive, inclusive, and sustainable city, it cannot afford to remain stuck in motion. 

          Sources: Agência Lusa; CP – Comboios de Portugal; Público; European Comission; Lisboa Secreta; HERE Urban Mobility Index; INE – Instituto Nacional de Estatística; SIC Notícias  

          Nuno Cançado

          Writer

          The Vandalism of the Eye: Who Told You the Silence Was Hostile?  

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          We are born with a frantic, stuttering rejection of the motionless frame. 

          The history of the image is not merely a chronicle of what we have chosen to show, but a record of what we have refused to leave alone. To look at a blank wall or a silent screen and feel a rising, metallic tang of panic is to confront a fundamental tension: the suspicion that presence must be proven through the persistent interruption of the stillness. We do not build cathedrals, film three-hour epics, or smear oil across canvas merely to “express”; we do it because the unmarked space is a mouth, and the history of aesthetics is the history of trying to avoid being swallowed. 

          This is the hidden pulse beneath every shutter click and every brushstroke. It is a structural claustrophobia – a manic attempt to colonize the silence before the silence consumes the subject. From the gold-leafed ceilings of the Baroque to the light-polluted screens of the digital age, we are the architects of our own distraction, weaving a tapestry of sensory clutter to hide the fact that the medium itself is ultimately an empty container. 

          The Gilded Barricade: Rituals of Overload 

          In the 17th century, the Baroque period weaponized detail. To step into a cathedral from that era is to be assaulted by a visual fever: gold leaf, marble drapery, and angels spilling out of every cornice until the eye is bruised by the weight of stuff. This was a psychological fortress. If every square inch of the sanctuary is occupied, there is no room for the Great Silence to leak in. 

          We see this same behavior in the cinematic frame. When directors like Terry Gilliam or Peter Greenaway stuff the screen with rotting fruit, rusted gears, and overlapping textures, they create a visual ecosystem so dense that the viewer’s eye is denied a place to land. It is manic distraction elevated to a formal principle. If the eye never stops moving, the mind never has to settle on the terrifying possibility that the image is just a trick of light on a flat surface. 

          This is the art of the “Scream.” It is a violent assertion of presence. But in our era of 8K resolution and infinite CGI, we have moved beyond the Baroque into a kind of digital psychosis. We have pioneered a cinema of constant motion, a rhythmic strobe light designed to keep the consciousness from ever having to face its own reflection in the dark of the theater. We worship the resolution because we can no longer handle the reality of the grain. 

          The Anatomy of the Saboteur: Aesthetics of Starvation 

          If the need to fill is the addiction, then there is a contrary behavior in the history of the image that is far more dangerous: The Ascetic Sabotage. 

          There are those who look at the clutter of the world and find it dishonest. They believe that every gilded angel and every lens flare is a lie told to soothe the viewer. Their behavior is an act of “Visual Fasting.” They want to starve the eye until it is forced to see the bone. This is the root of the Dogme 95 movement – a collective of filmmakers who signed a “Vow of Chastity” to ban special effects, imported props, and directorial credits. They were attempting a cinematic exorcism, stripping away the “furniture” of the story to see what was left of the human animal when it had nowhere to hide. 

          Watching this work is not “peaceful”; it is an irritant. It triggers a physical restlessness. When a camera sits still for ten minutes on a woman peeling potatoes in the films of Chantal Akerman, or a painter like Agnes Martin spends years drawing near-invisible grids on massive canvases, the viewer is being asked to inhabit the stillness. This is the Metaphysical Confrontation. It reveals that the demand for “content” is actually a flight from the medium itself. The saboteur doesn’t want to give the audience a masterpiece; they want to give them the blankness, watching the spectator squirm until they find a way to inhabit the frame. 

          Hauntology: The Presence of Absence 

          There is a third state, perhaps the most unsettling of all, where the “nothing” isn’t empty, but crowded with what is missing. This is the realm of Hauntology, a concept bridging the gap between the physical space and the psychological ghost. 

          When we look at a “Liminal Space” – an empty mall at 3:00 AM, a playground in the fog, or the long-exposure photography of a city where the people have disappeared into a ghost-blur – the viewer does not see a lack of life. They see the failure of purpose. A mall is designed for a crowd; when the crowd is gone, the architecture itself becomes a scream of absence. The space is haunted by the functionality it can no longer fulfill. 

          In cinema, this is the wide shot where the character is rendered infinitesimal against an indifferent landscape. It is the “Empty Room” trope where the camera lingers just three seconds too long after a character has exited. Why do those seconds feel so heavy? Because the stillness is being allowed to breathe, and the realization dawns that the room was never actually “ours.” 

          The human brain is so allergic to the unmarked that it populates these spaces with “presences.” We invent monsters in the dark; we invent “vibes” in empty hallways. We would rather be terrified by a ghost than be bored by the silence. This proves that the mind is a pattern-seeking machine that will hallucinate a “something” just to avoid the unbearable weight of the “nothing.” 

          The Digital Shroud and the End of the “Real” 

          We must confront the modern iteration of this fear: the Infinite Scroll. 

          The internet is the ultimate masterpiece of the “Filled Space.” It is an expanse that can never be satisfied. Every second, hours of video are uploaded; every thumb-flick brings a new image, a new take, a new outrage. We have created a technological environment that ensures we will never, for the rest of human history, have to experience an “unmarked” moment. 

          But this has a profound effect on how we perceive the world. When everything is “filled,” nothing is “significant.” If the Baroque was a gilded fence built to keep the dark out, the Digital Age is a flood that has drowned the world. We see this in the rise of “Post-Internet” art – works that are intentionally over-stimulating, glitchy, and fragmented. They mirror the way our brains now function: a frantic, non-linear jumping from one piece of data to the next. 

          The raw truth is that we have become so accustomed to the noise that stasis now feels like a glitch. When a film dares to be slow, or a painting dares to be a single color, it is often dismissed as “pretentious.” But that label is frequently just a defense mechanism for things that make the viewer feel the silence. We have become like people who have lived in a construction site for so long that we can’t sleep unless there’s a jackhammer outside the window. We are addicted to the hum of the machine because it proves the system is still online. 

          Entropy and the Biological Imperative 

          Nature itself shares this horror. A patch of dirt, left alone, will eventually fill itself with weeds and decay. Life is a “cluttering” force; death is the ultimate “emptiness.” Perhaps the obsession with filling the frame is simply a mimicry of biological growth – an evolutionary reflex to prove that the creative act is still vital. 

          We see this in the “Land Art” of the 1970s, where artists like Robert Smithson moved tons of earth to create spirals in the desert. It was an attempt to impose a human “mark” on a landscape that was already perfect in its indifference. The art wasn’t just the spiral; it was the inevitable fact that the spiral would one day be washed away. This is the central paradox: we build these monuments of light and sound knowing they are sandcastles. But the act of building is the only way the creator knows how to say “I am here” to a universe that isn’t listening. 

          The Autopsy of the Frame 

          To look at the world through this lens is to perform an autopsy on human desire. 

          The Maximalist tries to build a heaven out of clutter, hoping one more detail will make them safe. The Ascetic tries to find truth by throwing the furniture out the window, hoping the “Nothing” will finally speak. The Hauntologist stands in the empty room and listens to the echoes, acknowledging we are just temporary tenants in a space that doesn’t know our names. 

          None of these behaviors are “right” or “wrong.” They are simply ways of coping with the fact that we are finite beings floating in an infinite expansion. The most raw realization is that the universe doesn’t care if we fill it. You can paint a thousand masterpieces, film a million epics, scroll through a billion images – the silence remains. It is the backdrop against which all our noise is measured. 

          The power of a great work – be it a Caravaggio painting where the shadows eat the figures, or a film like 2001: A Space Odyssey where the weight of space is the loudest character – is not that it “fills” the space. It’s that it frames it. It gives the silence a shape, a name, and a texture. It stops trying to hide the mouth of the abyss and lets the audience look inside. 

          Is the unmarked space a lack of life, or is it the only place where life has room to move? We spend our lives running from the “Nothing,” but it is the only thing that is truly ours. The noise belongs to the world, but the silence – the raw, unedited, terrifying silence- is the only place where the image stops performing and the truth begins. 

          Teresa Catita

          Editor and Writer

          The End of the Unipolar World: Is A New Global Order Taking Shape?

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          Is the world entering a multipolarity era?

          For roughly three decades following the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991, the United States stood as the world’s unchallenged superpower. Political scientist Charles Krauthammer famously described this era as the “Unipolar Moment”, a period in which no other nation could rival American military, economic, or diplomatic reach. Today, that moment appears to be ending.

          A convergence of forces (e.g., the economic ascent of China, the expansion of the BRICS bloc, shifting US foreign policy, and the growing assertiveness of the Global South) is reshaping the international order at a pace that few anticipated.

          The Architecture of American Dominance

          To understand what is changing, it is necessary to understand what it once was.

          After the Cold War, the United States accounted for roughly 25% of global GDP, operated the world’s most powerful military by a significant margin, and anchored a network of international institutions (think of the United Nations, the World Trade Organization, and the International Monetary Fund) that largely reflected Western values and priorities. The US dollar became the world’s dominant reserve currency, giving Washington extraordinary leverage over the global financial system.

          This period of unipolarity was not simply a matter of military might: it was a comprehensive structural dominance spanning economics, technology, culture, and governance.

          The Rise of New Powers

          That architecture is now under sustained pressure.

          The most significant challenge comes from China, whose economy has grown from approximately $1.2 trillion in 2000 to over $18 trillion today, a rise from 4% to nearly 18% of global GDP. Simultaneously, the BRICS bloc (originally comprising Brazil, Russia, India, China, and South Africa) has expanded aggressively, and as of 2026 represents over 36% of global GDP measured in purchasing power parity (PPP), already surpassing the G7’s share of roughly 29.6%, according to IMF data.

          This is not merely an economic story. The BRICS nations collectively account for approximately 40% of global trade, according to the Munich Security Report 2025, whose central theme was precisely “Multipolarization”. The report observed that an ongoing power shift toward a greater number of states vying for influence is clearly discernible, marking a decisive shift in the language of mainstream international security analysis. Beyond BRICS, middle powers including Turkey, Saudi Arabia, India, Indonesia, and Brazil are increasingly acting as independent actors rather than automatic supporters of the Western-led order. At the 2025 Munich Security Conference, 30% of speakers represented the Global South, a figure that would have been unthinkable a decade ago.

          Figure 1. Share of Global GDP (PPP): G7 vs BRICS+, 2000–2024

          Fracturing Alliances and US Foreign Policy

          The second major driver of change is the United States itself.

          The return of Donald Trump to the White House in January 2025 accelerated tensions already present within the Western alliance system.

          Trump’s approach, characterized by tariff escalation, skepticism toward NATO burden-sharing, and unilateral diplomatic maneuvering, strained relations with traditional partners in Europe and Asia. Europe, long dependent on US security guarantees, responded by dramatically increasing defense spending, though analysts note it will remain reliant on American military infrastructure for years to come.

          At the same time, a growing divergence is visible in how different parts of the world perceive the emerging order. Surveys conducted for the Munich Security Report 2025 found that majorities in G7 nations view the shift toward multipolarity with concern, fearing increased disorder and conflict. By contrast, large majorities in China (+50% net agreement), South Africa (+45%), India (+44%), and Brazil (+35%) believe a multipolar world would better address the needs of developing nations. The North-South divide has rarely been so sharply quantified.

          Figure 2. “A Multipolar World Would Be More Peaceful and Fair”, Net Agreement (%) by Country.

          The Dollar, The Military, And the Limits of Decline

          The narrative of American decline is, however, contested by several analysts. Writing in Foreign Affairs in February 2026, analyst C. Raja Mohan argued that “the first year of Trump’s second term has punctured the narrative of American decline and the rise of multipolarity,” pointing to the US ability to intervene militarily, reshape trade rules, and push resolutions through the UN Security Council with limited effective resistance.

          A key pillar of this argument is financial. The US dollar still accounts for approximately 57% of global foreign exchange reserves, according to IMF COFER data, down from a peak of nearly 73% in 2001, but still far ahead of any rival currency. The euro, its closest competitor, holds under 20%. Efforts by BRICS nations to launch an alternative reserve currency or payment system have so far failed to gain traction, with even the BRICS Development Bank continuing to operate primarily in US dollars. Beyond finance, the US continues to dominate the sectors most critical to 21st-century power: artificial intelligence, semiconductor technology, and advanced military systems. Russia, often cited as a pillar of a new multipolar order, has a GDP smaller than that of Italy and a narrow economic base heavily dependent on natural resource exports.

          As the Munich Security Report 2025 concluded with notable precision: “Today’s international system shows elements of unipolarity, bipolarity, multipolarity, and nonpolarity. What you see depends on where you look.”

          Figure 3. US Dollar Share of Global Foreign Exchange Reserves, 1999–2023

          What Multipolarity Would Mean in Practice

          Regardless of how the academic debate is resolved, the practical consequences of the current transition are already visible. Multilateral institutions are under strain: the WTO’s dispute resolution mechanism remains largely paralyzed, the UN Security Council is increasingly deadlocked, and global supply chains are fragmenting along geopolitical lines, a process known as “friend-shoring”, as nations prioritize strategic alignment over economic efficiency.

          Some analysts see opportunity in this transition. Chatham House researcher Amitav Acharya has argued that a “multiplex” world order could emerge, one characterized by greater ideological diversity, more inclusive global institutions, and stronger regional governance. The inclusion of the African Union in the G20 in 2023 was cited as a potential sign of this more representative direction. The Munich Security Report 2025 cautioned, however, that without shared rules, multipolarization risks producing not a fairer world but a more conflictual one:

          “Before our eyes, we are seeing the negative scenario of a more multipolar world materialize — a more conflictual world without shared rules and effective multilateral cooperation.”

          Conclusion

          The world of 2026 is no longer the world of 1995. While the United States retains unmatched military capability and continues to anchor the global financial system, its ability to set the terms of international order unilaterally has measurably diminished.

          The rise of China and the BRICS bloc, combined with a more assertive Global South and an increasingly transactional US foreign policy, are producing a structural transition whose ultimate destination remains unclear. What is certain is that the rules, institutions, and alliances that defined the post-Cold War era are under revision and the outcome of that revision will shape the next several decades of global politics.

          Sources

          Munich Security Conference, Munich Security Report 2025 C. Raja Mohan, “The Multipolar Delusion,” Foreign Affairs, February 2026 ; Brandon J. Weichert, “The Unipolar Moment Is Over,” The National Interest, December 2025 (nationalinterest.org); Amitav Acharya, “The Decline of the West and the Rise of the Rest,” The World Today, Chatham House, December 2025 (chathamhouse.org); Centre for International Governance Innovation, “America’s Unipolar Moment Is Over” (cigionline.org); MD. Abir Mahmud Jakaria, “Global Power Shift: Is the United States Losing Dominance in the Emerging Multipolar World Order?” ResearchGate, February 2026 (researchgate.net); Indian Journal of Law and Legal Research, “The Rise of Multipolarity: Is the Unipolar World Order Officially Over?” February 2026 (ijllr.com); IMF, World Economic Outlook Database (imf.org); IMF, COFER Database — Currency Composition of Official Foreign Exchange Reserves (imf.org); EY India Economic Watch, “Can BRICS Play a Key Role in Shaping Future Global Economic Policy?” 2024 (ey.com); BRICS Brazil Presidency, “BRICS GDP Outperforms Global Average”

          Rebecca Fratello 

          Writer

          Why Property Matters More Than Income 

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          For a long time, inequality was mostly discussed in terms of income, jobs, and education. But in many rich countries today, the real difference is often about who owns property. Two households can earn similar salaries and still have very different futures if one owns a home and the other rents. Housing is no longer just a place to live. It is one of the main ways families build wealth, gain financial security, and pass advantages on to their children. Across OECD countries, wealth is much more unevenly distributed than income, the richest 10% of households own more than half of total household wealth on average, while the bottom half owns very little. 

          Asset Inequality 

          Income shapes what a household can afford today. Wealth shapes what it can survive, invest, and pass on tomorrow. This matters because wealth gives protection against unemployment, illness, rising prices, and economic shocks in a way that income alone often cannot. A household with a modest salary but a fully paid home may be much more secure than a household with the same salary, no assets, and high rent. Research on OECD shows that wealth inequality is greater than income inequality, and that housing makes up a large part of household wealth, especially for people outside the extremely richest groups. 

          Housing is important because it is both something people need and something that can make them wealthier. Everyone needs a place to live, but people who own a home can slowly build value with it, benefit if house prices go up, and sometimes use it to borrow money. This gives housing a big effect on people’s financial security and future opportunities. That is why housing does not just show inequality but can also make it worse. 

          Homeownership Creates Advantage 

          Owning a home creates advantages in several ways. First, mortgage payments can gradually turn monthly housing costs into ownership. Rent, by contrast, pays for shelter but does not create an asset. Second, homeowners may benefit if the value of their property rises over time. Third, owning a home often brings more stability, since owners are usually less exposed to sudden rent increases or be forced to leave their home. Finally, housing wealth can later help pay for education, retirement, or children’s future home purchases. 

          This means the gap between owners and renters increasingly looks like a class divide. Owners can build wealth while meeting a basic need. Renters usually cannot. Over time, that difference grows. A family that buys early may spend years building equity. A family that rents for the same period may face rising housing costs without gaining any asset in return. In this way, housing turns inequality from a matter of monthly income into a matter of long-term ownership. 

          Why Buying A Home Is Getting Harder 

          This would matter less if everyone had a fair chance to buy a home. But entering the housing market has become more difficult, especially for young people. House prices have risen sharply in many places. Down payments are harder to save for. Credit rules are often stricter. And high rents make saving even harder. Eurostat data shows that in some EU countries, young people spend a very large share of their income on housing.  

          This matters because high rent does not only create pressure in the present, but it also reduces the ability to save for the future. The result is a cycle, those who already own homes benefit when prices rise and those who do not own face a higher barrier to entry every year. In this sense, the housing market often rewards those who are already inside it while making it harder for outsiders to enter. 

          Figure 2 – Housing cost overburden by age group 

          Inherited Wealth 

          This is where the issue becomes generational. When homes become so expensive that wages alone are not enough to buy one, family wealth starts to matter much more. Parents may help with a down payment, give property directly, or leave an inheritance that makes homeownership possible. In that kind of system, access to property depends less on current income and more on whether someone’s family already owns assets. 

          OECD evidence suggests this is not a small issue. In several European countries, a significant share of low-income homeowners got their homes through inheritance or gifts rather than through purchase alone. OECD research on inheritance also shows that wealth transfers tend to increase inequality, because the people who receive inheritance are often already better off.  

          This does not mean income no longer matters. Salaries still affect daily life, access to credit, and the ability to pay a mortgage but income alone matters less when wealth already gives some people a head start. A good salary helps, but it may still not be enough to buy a home without family support. At the same time, a household with inherited property may enjoy more security and wealth growth than a renter with a higher income.  

          The Political and Social Effects 

          When property matters more than income, the effects go beyond money. Homeownership can shape access to better neighborhoods, better schools, more stability, and greater security in old age. It also affects politics. Existing homeowners often benefit from rising house prices and may oppose reforms that would lower them, even if those reforms would help younger or poorer households. 

          This helps explain why housing policy is so difficult. Building more homes, changing zoning laws, expanding social housing, or taxing property more effectively could improve access for people outside the market. But these policies may conflict with the interests of people who already own property. As the World Bank has noted, housing affordability is not only a social issue, but it can also reduce labor mobility and stop young people from moving to places where the best jobs are. 

          Figure 3 – OECD countries have ample room to shift the tax burden towards property taxes 

          Conclusion 

          The class division today is not just between people with high salaries and people with low salaries. More often, it is between people who own property and people who do not. Housing is the clearest example, because owning a home can give families more than shelter, it can give them wealth, stability, and something to pass on to their children. As buying a home becomes harder, and more dependent on family support, inequality becomes more deeply rooted across generations. If this trend continues, what matters most may not be who earns the most, but who already owns something valuable. 

          Sources:

          Margarida Ferreira

          Writer

          Who were the Neanderthals?

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          Neanderthals, scientifically Homo Neanderthalensis, the most similar species to Homo sapiens, have long been imagined as aggressive and intellectually inert creatures, roaming the earth and throwing stones and sticks everywhere. However, in the last few decades, studies have led many to believe that there is much more to be said about these early humans. Not only did they possess many cognitive abilities, but they also originated the earliest rudimentary forms of sacred rituals and art.  

           The oldest known Neanderthal fossil is estimated to be 430 thousand years old. It was found in the Atapuerca Mountains, in Spain, and consists of the skull of a man whom archaeologists called “Miguelón”. On the other hand, the most recent traces of their lives date back to 40 thousand years ago. Hence, it is assumed that they existed during that time.  

           Spain and other European countries are not the only ones that were once home to these prehistoric humans. Because they lived through glacial and interglacial periods for millennia, this might have been a driving force for searching for food and warmer temperatures, leading to migration. Consequently, it is possible to find traces of their existence from Portugal to Central Asia, not only in fossils and artifacts, but also in ourselves: almost every European and Asian citizen carries up to 4% of their DNA.  

           What did they look like? 

           While Homo Sapiens’ physiology enables us to run at high velocities and move nimbly compared to some other similar species, Neanderthal´s attributes were a little bit different. They were shorter, heavier, with smaller and wider limbs and torsos. Their muscular mass was much more prominent, providing high levels of strength and resistance in the wild world. This also allowed them to preserve more heat in their bodies, something essential to survive in cold temperatures during the glacial ages. Besides, as they evolved in Europe and in central Asia, where the climate was harsher than in Africa (where Homo Sapiens came from), it is believed that these physical characteristics developed to guarantee adaptation in these areas. Their faces also had wider noses that helped the air be heated before reaching the lungs and jaw bones that grew forward until late adolescence.  

           How were their minds? 

           Neanderthal´s brains were also very characteristic, being the same size or larger than modern human ones. Bigger parts were allocated to vision and body movement and control. This also explains why their eyes were wider and their vision was better.Nevertheless, minor areas were directed at social cognitions. Consequently, their interactions were probably not as rich and didn´t play as an important part in their lives as in Homo Sapiens´.  So, they didn´t build big social networks, preferring to live in small groups. This is beneficial in some cases, for example, the need to collaborate and take care of many members is not incessant, which could facilitate decision-making and movement from place to place. However, exchanging information, passing downknowledge through generations, and building some sort of culture are essential activities to lead populations to prosper and evolve throughout history. When that didn´t happen, extinction became easier and more common.  

           What did they eat and what did they do? 

           Living in a time where agriculture was nowhere in sight, hunting and gathering what was found in Nature was probably the major occupation of Neanderthals. Even though they have been imagined killing beasts like mammoths and sabretooth tigers, that idea is not entirely correct. Professor John Speth, from the University of Michigan, stated: “Neanderthals were not hypercarnivores; their diet was different.” Studies show that one common habit was letting large quantities of meat putrefy, hoping that it would attract mostly maggots, which are much easier to collect and consume. Besides, these little beings were a great source of protein, fat, and amino acids. Tubers, fruits, seeds, and plants as well as cannibalism contributed to their omnivorous diet.  

           Neanderthals used many small objects to serve various purposes in their daily activities. Items such as axes, scrapers, carved rocks, and burins helped with hunting and domestic tasks. Fire was already a controlled element, through techniques such as percussion with flint and pyrite. It contributed to body heating and cooking tasks. Flaking techniques assisted them in manufacturing clothing from animal skins, bones, and fur.  

          What did they create? 

           Notwithstanding, these sorts of items were also used with a symbolic meaning. Neanderthal remains that carried necklaces with eagle talons as pendants, as well as shells and feathers, have been found across more than 20 places in Western Europe. It is common that the objects that everyone carried meant something about their lives or role in the social group and were a tool for non-verbal communication. This also reveals that burial rituals could be practiced. In France, in a cave called La Chapelle-aux-Saints, in 1908, an untouched skeleton was discovered. More recent excavations concluded that the depression where it was found had been altered 50 000 years ago to bury this man or woman. That way, it remained protected from weather-related smoothing and animals.  

           In many cases, not only bones were found, but also paintings on the walls.  

          In three different spots in Spain, after analyzing their pigments, researchers concluded that the paintings were at least 65 000 years old, being the oldest ones in the whole world. This raised a question: why were the first ever cave paintings found in Europe, rather than in Africa, where Homo Sapiens appeared? Besides, it is known that the first modern humans arrived in Europe around 50 000 to 40 000 years ago. More recently, in 2018, it was concluded that other artworks in Cueva de los Aviones, were at least 115 000 years old. This left scientists with one possible answer: Neanderthals were also artists. This raised various debates, where many started defending that they were not as different from Homo Sapiens as it was thought. Moreover, prejudice regarding their level of cognitive capacities, where modern humans crown themselves as being the smartest species of all time, might be led by presumption and not by real facts.  

           How did they become extinct? 

           Neanderthal’s extinction occurred around 40 000 years ago. Several theories have emerged to justify this fact. Many defend that this is simply nature running its course, since 99.9% of all species that ever existed have disappeared. Curiously, this prehistoric human extinction coincided with the migration and expansion of Homo Sapiens outside of Africa. Many experts claim that this extinction happened due to the competition and violence between the two species. Maybe Neanderthals had worse weapons to defeat the modern man or lost in the search for food and shelter. Perhaps, as they lived in smaller gatherings, they couldn’t procreate as much. Nevertheless, other theories suggest that instead of being violence the reason for their extinction, it was sex. Inbreeding between the two species might have caused a reduction in sexual relations between Neanderthal´s, which made their populations become smaller until they were outnumbered by Homo Sapiens. Another hypothesis is that a thousand-year cold snap that occurred around 40 000 years ago may have caused their population´s decline.  

            Conclusion 

           All in all, Neanderthals were far more complex and capable than the stereotypical image that has long defined them. Rather than viewing them as inferior, it may be more accurate to see them as different, yet remarkably similar to us. Whatever the reasons for their disappearance, their legacy did not entirely disappear, as traces of their DNA still live in human populations. There will forever be endless questions regarding their lives, the answers to which are timelessly buried in the past, and in the mute land they once walked on.  

          Sources for the text 

          https://www.nationalgeographic.com/history/article/who-were-the-neanderthals

          https://www.nationalgeographic.com/history/article/neanderthals-extinction-homo-sapiens

          https://anthrosource.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/aman.13654

          https://www.britannica.com/topic/Mousterian-industry

          https://www.nationalgeographic.com/culture/article/130911-neanderthal-fashion-week-clothes

          https://www.nationalgeographic.com/culture/article/131216-la-chapelle-neanderthal-burials-graves

          https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/article/neanderthals-cave-art-humans-evolution-science

          https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/topic/climate-change

          https://www.pnas.org/doi/10.1073/pnas.1808647115

          https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/article/news-neanderthal-teeth-nursing-seasons-stress

          https://www.nhm.ac.uk/discover/news/2022/october/neanderthal-extinction-maybe-caused-sex-not-fighting.html

          https://www.britannica.com/topic/Neanderthal~

          https://www.nhm.ac.uk/discover/who-were-the-neanderthals.html

          https://humanorigins.si.edu/evidence/human-fossils/species/homo-neanderthalensis

          https://europe.factsanddetails.com/article/entry-814.html

          https://www.science.smith.edu/climatelit/disappearance-of-the-neanderthals-c-40000-bp/

          Sources for the images 

          https://www.worldhistory.org/image/5958/geographical-range-of-neanderthals/

          https://www.britannica.com/topic/Homo-sapiens/Bodily-structure

          https://www.theguardian.com/science/2012/apr/18/favourite-science-writing-sleeping-neanderthals

          https://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2018/feb/23/neanderthals-cave-art-spain-astounding-discovery-humbles-every-human

          Júlia Lobão

          Writer

          M-pesa: How Mobile Money Transformed Financial Inclusion and Redefined Development Finance 

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          A Cash Economy Meets a Mobile Network

          In 2007, M-Pesa was launched by Kenya, soon to become one of the most influential financial innovations in development economics. The platform was developed by Safaricom with support from Vodafone, with the aim of allowing users to send and receive money through basic mobile phones. A simple payment solution at first glance, but life changing at its roots.

          Before M-Pesa, most Kenyans were under a cash-dominated and largely informal economy: bank branches concentrated in urban centres, restrictive documentation requirements, and minimum balance conditions excluding low-income households. For rural families, sending money often meant physically transporting cash or relying on informal couriers, both costly and risky.

          M-Pesa was an alternative to this. Using SMS-based USSD technology, no traditional bank account was needed. Users could use basic mobile phones without internet connectivity, being able to deposit cash with local agents, store value electronically, and transfer funds instantly. In other words, it wasn’t a simple payment application, but a new layer of digital financial infrastructure.

          Financial Inclusion as a Driver of Development

          Financial inclusion has been theoretically and empirically demonstrated to be a catalyst for economic growth. By granting access to savings mechanisms, credit, and secure payment systems, households can smooth consumption, invest in education and healthcare, and manage economic risk. In other words, households are opened doors towards productivity and resilience.

          The traditional way in which Kenyans would manage their money was highly inefficient and vulnerable to theft or loss. But with M-Pesa, financial access started moving from informal networks to formal digital systems.

          Financial Inclusion Measured by Access in Kenya (2006–2021).

          Informal reliance and outright exclusion dropped, and as shown by data, digital finance brought millions of people into the formal system.

          With M-Pesa, sending money became instantaneous and significantly safer. Migrant workers in urban centres could transfer funds to relatives in rural areas without intermediaries. According to research by Tavneet Suri and William Jack, access to M-Pesa lifted around 2% of Kenyan households out of extreme poverty between 2008 and 2014.

          However, aggregate expansion tells only part of the story. The distribution of access across gender reveals a deeper transformation.

          Share of Male and Female Adults (18+) Who Are Financially Included, 2006–2024.

          The financial inclusion gender gap, which exceeded 12 percentage points in 2006, narrowed dramatically over time. For instance, M-Pesa’s impact was particularly determining for women. After obtaining access to mobile financial services, many of them evolved from subsistence agriculture to small-scale retail and entrepreneurial activities. Barriers to entry were reduced, hence expanding economic agency and participation across previously excluded groups.

          These trends speak loudly. When remittances become reliable and affordable, labour mobility increases, local businesses gain liquidity, and households become more resilient to shocks. A true structural economic change. Digital financial infrastructure can therefore function as a quasi-public good, even when delivered by a private company.

          Fintech Innovation in a Low-Income Context

          Clearly, M-Pesa emerged from a developing economy responding to local constraints, definitely not a high-income technology. Hence, the system was designed for simplicity and scalability. USSD technology allowed even the most basic phones to participate in the digital economy.

          From a fintech perspective, M-Pesa demonstrates the power of platform-based financial ecosystems. Over time, the service expanded beyond peer-to-peer transfers to include bill payments, salary disbursement, merchant services, savings accounts such as M-Shwari, and microcredit products. Hence, as other fintech cases, the platform soon evolved into an integrated financial ecosystem operating hand in hand with traditional banks.

          This trajectory challenges classical assumptions in financial development theory. Conventional models often suggest that financial deepening requires the gradual expansion of banking institutions, physical branches, and formal credit markets. Kenya experienced a form of technological “leapfrogging,” bypassing intermediate stages by leveraging widespread mobile penetration to accelerate financial integration.

          Such a leapfrogging effect has inspired similar systems across Sub-Saharan Africa and parts of Asia, including Tanzania, Ghana, and Bangladesh. In several African economies, mobile money accounts now outnumber traditional bank accounts. However, adoption rates remain uneven across the continent, reflecting differences in infrastructure, regulation, and market structure.

          The Potential of Mobile Payment in Africa.

          In particular, Kenya’s position within the African digital payments landscape shows both the scale of its transformation and the broader potential of mobile finance.

          Macroeconomic And Structural Impacts

          M-Pesa’s influence goes much beyond household-level outcomes. Over the past decade, both the volume and total value of mobile money transactions have increased exponentially, signalling the system’s growing macroeconomic significance.

          Volume and Value of Mobile Money Transactions in Kenya (2008–2018).

          The Central Bank of Kenya reports that mobile transactions now account for a substantial share of national GDP.

          Moreover, digital transaction histories provide valuable data. Typically, in development economics, information asymmetry (where lenders lack reliable information about borrowers) constraints credit markets. But by creating digital financial records, mobile money platforms mitigate such a barrier. Thus, M-Pesa contributes to the formalisation of informal economic activity, increasingly including small-scale entrepreneurs into broader financial networks.

          However, rapid expansion introduces regulatory complexities. Safaricom’s dominant position in the Kenyan market has raised concerns regarding competition and interoperability. It’s essential that policymakers balance innovation with financial stability, consumer protection, and data privacy safeguards. Digital infrastructure can promote inclusion, but it also concentrates power if regulatory frameworks do not evolve accordingly.

          Challenges And Future Prospects

          M-Pesa’s success has transformed it from a financial innovation into a pillar of Kenya’s economic infrastructure. With that scale comes new complexity. As mobile money underpins remittances, small businesses, and even public transfers, digital platforms increasingly carry systemic importance. Operational failures, cybersecurity risks, or governance weaknesses would now have economy-wide consequences.

          Market concentration and data governance present additional challenges. Safaricom’s dominance strengthens network efficiency, yet it raises concerns about competition and interoperability. At the same time, vast volumes of transactional data improve credit access but intensify debates over privacy, surveillance, and algorithmic fairness. Financial inclusion must therefore evolve alongside regulatory capacity.

          The broader lesson is that inclusion is not static. As fintech ecosystems become more sophisticated, digital literacy gaps and unequal access to technology risk creating new forms of exclusion. M-Pesa’s future will depend not only on technological expansion, but on institutional design, ensuring that innovation remains inclusive, competitive, and resilient.

          In this sense, the Kenyan experience does not mark the end of a development story, but the beginning of a new policy frontier: how to govern digital finance as a public economic utility.

          Sources: World Bank Global Findex Database; Central Bank of Kenya Annual Reports; Suri, T. & Jack, W. (2016), The Long-Run Poverty and Gender Impacts of Mobile Money, Science; GSMA State of the Industry Report on Mobile Money; Safaricom Annual Reports; MIT News; Financial Times; United Nations Development Programme.

          Rebecca Fratello 

          Writer

          Dopamine In The Digital Age: How Technology Is Reshaping Our Reward System 

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          Over the past two decades, digital technologies have become deeply embedded in everyday life. Smartphones, social media, and streaming services provide constant access to information, entertainment, and social interaction. While these tools offer undeniable benefits, researchers increasingly question how such continuous stimulation may influence the brain’s reward system. In particular, scientists have begun to examine how modern technologies interact with dopamine pathways, the neural circuits involved in motivation, learning, and reward processing. 

          Understanding this relationship is crucial, as the same biological mechanisms driving curiosity and goal-directed behavior may also make individuals vulnerable to compulsive digital habits. 

          The brain’s reward system 

          Dopamine is a neurotransmitter involved in the brain’s reward and motivation systems. Contrary to popular belief, dopamine is not simply the “pleasure chemical.” Instead, neuroscientists describe it as a signal that helps the brain anticipate rewards and learn from experiences. When individuals encounter a rewarding stimulus, dopamine activity increases, reinforcing behaviors that may lead to future rewards.  

          As neuroscientist Wolfram Schultz explains, dopamine neurons encode what is known as a “reward prediction error”, meaning they signal the difference between expected and actual rewards. This mechanism helps individuals learn which actions are worth repeating. 

          Importantly, the reward system evolved to support survival. Activities such as eating, social interaction, or exploration naturally stimulate dopamine release, reinforcing behaviors that historically increased the chances of survival and reproduction. 

          Figure 1: Simplified representation of the brain’s dopamine reward pathway, involving the ventral tegmental area, nucleus accumbens and prefrontal cortex. Source: Michigan State University. 

          How digital platforms capture attention 

          Modern digital platforms are designed to capture and maintain attention, often by leveraging the same reward mechanisms that drive learning and motivation. Social media notifications, scrolling feeds, and algorithmically curated content provide frequent opportunities for small rewards, such as receiving a message, discovering new information, or gaining social validation through likes and comments. 

          Behavioral scientists have noted that many digital products rely on attention-maximizing design strategies that exploit psychological vulnerabilities. On this note, technology companies often structure digital experiences to encourage repeated engagement, reinforcing habitual checking behaviors that can effectively sustain user engagement.  

          The power of variable rewards 

          One of the most powerful mechanisms involved in digital engagement is the concept of variable rewards. This principle originates from behavioral psychology, where experiments demonstrated that rewards delivered unpredictably tend to produce stronger behavioral responses than rewards delivered consistently. 

          According to behavioral design researcher Nir Eyal, social media platforms frequently rely on this mechanism, which resembles the dynamics observed in gambling systems. Each time users open an application, they may or may not encounter a rewarding stimulus: a message from a friend, a viral post, or new social feedback. Because the outcome is uncertain, the brain’s reward system becomes highly engaged, encouraging repeated checking behavior and a tendency to digital overconsumption, as reported by Stanford psychiatrist Anne Lembke. Over time, such repeated reward anticipation may reinforce habitual digital behaviors. 

          Figure 2: Representation of the variable reward cycle commonly used in digital platforms to encourage repeated engagement. Source: Nir Eyal. 

          Are our brains adapting to constant stimulation? 

          Researchers are still investigating whether constant digital stimulation may influence the sensitivity of the brain’s reward system. Some studies suggest that frequent exposure to highly stimulating digital environments could affect attention spans and reward sensitivity. Heavy smartphone and social media use has been associated with increased impulsivity, reduced sustained attention, and compulsive checking behaviors. These patterns resemble those observed in other forms of behavioral addiction, although the scientific community continues to debate the extent of the phenomenon. Psychiatrist Anna Lembke argues that modern environments provide unprecedented access to rewarding stimuli where people are subject to dopamine-overload, disrupting the balance between pleasure and pain.  

          However, it is important to emphasize that research in this area remains ongoing. Many scientists caution against overly simplistic interpretations of dopamine’s role, noting that human behavior results from complex interactions between biological, psychological, and social factors. 

          Digital habits and self-regulation 

          Despite concerns about excessive digital engagement, technology itself is not inherently harmful. Instead, the key challenge lies in how individuals and societies adapt to an environment rich in digital stimuli. 

          Researchers increasingly emphasize the importance of digital self-regulation, including strategies such as managing notifications, setting screen-time limits, or creating technology-free spaces during certain activities. These practices may help individuals regain control over their attention and reduce compulsive engagement patterns. 

          Understanding how digital environments interact with the brain’s reward system may therefore empower individuals to make more intentional choices about their technology use. 

          Conclusion 

          The rapid expansion of digital technologies has transformed how humans communicate, learn, and entertain themselves. At the same time, these technologies interact with deeply rooted biological systems that shape motivation and behavior. 

          By engaging the brain’s dopamine-based reward circuits, digital platforms can encourage repeated engagement and habit formation. While this interaction does not necessarily imply harm, it highlights the importance of understanding the psychological mechanisms underlying digital behavior. 

          As research in neuroscience and behavioral science continues to evolve, one question remains central: how can societies harness the benefits of digital innovation while preserving the ability to focus, reflect, and maintain healthy relationships with technology? 

          Sources: 

          • Schultz, W. (2016). 
          • Dopamine reward prediction error coding; Wise, R. A. (2004). 
          • Dopamine, learning and motivation; Alter, A. (2017). 
          • Irresistible: The Rise of Addictive Technology and the Business of Keeping Us Hooked; Lembke, A. (2021). 
          • Dopamine Nation: Finding Balance in the Age of Indulgence; Eyal, N. (2014). 
          • Hooked: How to Build Habit-Forming Products; Montag, C.; Diefenbach, S. (2018). 
          • Towards Homo Digitalis: Important research issues for psychology and the neurosciences at the dawn of the Internet of Things;  

          Margherita Ottavia Serafini 

          Writer